Transboundary Water Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: Spatial Patterns and the Role of Proximity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
2.1. Literature Review
2.1.1. Transboundary Water Cooperation
2.1.2. Multidimensional Proximity
2.2. Theoretical Framework: Towards Global TWC
2.2.1. The Relations of Proximities and Global TWC
2.2.2. Actors and Driving Force
3. Data and Methods
3.1. Research Area
3.2. Data
3.2.1. Water Cooperation Events Data
3.2.2. Multidimensional Proximity Data
3.3. Methods
3.3.1. Social Network Analysis
3.3.2. QAP Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Time Series of TWC Events
4.2. Spatial Differentiation of TWC Linkages Based on Frequency
4.3. Spatial Differentiation of TWC Linkages Based on Intensity
4.4. QAP Multiple Regression Results
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Intensity Scale | Descriptions |
---|---|
−7 | Formal declaration of war |
−6 | Extensive war acts causing deaths, dislocation or high strategic cost |
−5 | Small scale military acts |
−4 | Political-military hostile actions |
−3 | Diplomatic-economic hostile actions |
−2 | Strong verbal expressions displaying hostility in interaction |
−1 | Mild verbal expressions displaying discord in interaction |
0 | Neutral or non-significant acts for the inter-nation situation |
1 | Minor official exchanges, talks or policy expressions—mild verbal support |
2 | Official verbal support of goals, values, or regime |
3 | Cultural or scientific agreement or support (nonstrategic) |
4 | Non-military economic, technological or industrial agreement |
5 | Military economic or strategic support |
6 | International freshwater treaty; major strategic alliance (regional or international) |
7 | Voluntary unification into one nation |
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Proximity Name | Indicator Name | Abbreviation | Definition | Source | Years |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Geographical proximity | Geographical distance | dist | The geographical distance between the capitals of the two countries and standardize it | CEPII | 2019 |
Same transboundary basin | basin | Dummy variable that is 1 if two countries belong to the same transboundary basin, and 0 otherwise | IWED | 2019 | |
Economic proximity | Bilateral trade volume | trade | The cumulative value of bilateral trade volume between the two countries and standardize it | UNCTAD | 1992–2013 |
Organizational proximity | Water organization | organ | The frequency that the two countries are in the same water organization | IWED | 1948–2013 |
Colonial proximity | Colonial link | colony | Dummy variable that is 1 if two countries had a colonial relationship after 1945, and 0 otherwise | CEPII | 1945–2019 |
Common colonizer | comcol | Dummy variable that is 1 if two countries had a common colonizer after 1945, and 0 otherwise | CEPII | 1945–2019 |
Indicator | Formula | Definition | Implication |
---|---|---|---|
Degree | Number of nodes directly connected to node | The extent to which the actor is at the center of the network | |
Weighted degree centrality | The ratio of the number of nodes directly connected to node to the maximum number of nodes that it may be directly connected. Weighted by the connection strength between nodes | The extent to which the actor is at the center of the network | |
Weighted betweenness centrality | The standardized value of the probability that node is on the shortest path between node and node . Weighted by the connection strength between nodes | The extent to which the actor controls the contacts between other actors |
Rank | Country | Weighted Degree Centrality | Country | Weighted Betweenness Centrality | Country | Weighted Degree Centrality | Country | Weighted Betweenness Centrality |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | China | 0.279 | China | 0.153 | China | 0.279 | China | 0.153 |
2 | Germany | 0.177 | Egypt | 0.052 | Germany | 0.240 | Germany | 0.068 |
3 | Russia | 0.171 | Germany | 0.050 | Russia | 0.200 | Russia | 0.050 |
4 | Egypt | 0.156 | USA | 0.045 | Ukraine | 0.138 | USA | 0.044 |
5 | USA | 0.121 | Russia | 0.043 | Egypt | 0.125 | Egypt | 0.042 |
6 | Ukraine | 0.111 | Sudan | 0.018 | Tanzania | 0.123 | South Africa | 0.022 |
7 | Tanzania | 0.106 | Iran | 0.017 | USA | 0.119 | Iran | 0.017 |
8 | Congo-Kinshasa | 0.095 | Congo-Kinshasa | 0.014 | Congo-Kinshasa | 0.091 | Sudan | 0.016 |
9 | Sudan | 0.088 | Japan | 0.013 | Moldova | 0.091 | Congo-Kinshasa | 0.014 |
10 | Moldova | 0.080 | Jordan | 0.013 | Sudan | 0.077 | Tanzania | 0.013 |
11 | Thailand | 0.071 | Turkey | 0.013 | Tajikistan | 0.077 | Japan | 0.012 |
12 | Turkey | 0.067 | Tanzania | 0.011 | Czech | 0.076 | Turkey | 0.011 |
13 | Ethiopia | 0.067 | South Africa | 0.010 | Romania | 0.075 | Jordan | 0.011 |
14 | Czech | 0.067 | Ukraine | 0.007 | South Africa | 0.067 | Mali | 0.009 |
15 | Romania | 0.064 | Israel | 0.006 | Thailand | 0.064 | Ukraine | 0.009 |
16 | Jordan | 0.063 | India | 0.005 | Bulgaria | 0.064 | Czech | 0.006 |
17 | Tajikistan | 0.059 | Czech | 0.005 | Kazakhstan | 0.060 | Poland | 0.006 |
18 | Bulgaria | 0.057 | Syria | 0.005 | Turkey | 0.059 | Zimbabwe | 0.006 |
19 | Kenya | 0.056 | South Korea | 0.005 | Ethiopia | 0.056 | Israel | 0.005 |
20 | Uganda | 0.055 | Laos | 0.005 | Hungary | 0.055 | Laos | 0.005 |
Variable | Unstandardized Coefficient | Standardized Coefficient | p-Value | Standard Error |
---|---|---|---|---|
dist | −0.84635 | −0.03839 | 0.0005 | 0.24382 |
basin | 13.32802 | 0.47452 | 0.0005 | 0.20493 |
trade | 21.97590 | 0.09077 | 0.001 | 2.11566 |
organ | 0.07188 | 0.04437 | 0.0005 | 0.01968 |
colony | 1.43859 | 0.03712 | 0.001 | 0.29427 |
comcol | 0.95653 | 0.05921 | 0.0005 | 0.14187 |
Intercept | −1.00595 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
0.2722 | ||||
0.27199 |
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Yan, Z.; Qiu, X.; Du, D.; Grimes, S. Transboundary Water Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: Spatial Patterns and the Role of Proximity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1503. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031503
Yan Z, Qiu X, Du D, Grimes S. Transboundary Water Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: Spatial Patterns and the Role of Proximity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(3):1503. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031503
Chicago/Turabian StyleYan, Ziming, Xiaojuan Qiu, Debin Du, and Seamus Grimes. 2022. "Transboundary Water Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: Spatial Patterns and the Role of Proximity" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 3: 1503. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031503