Associations between Coronavirus Crisis Perception, Perceived Economic Risk of Coronavirus, General Self-Efficacy, and Coronavirus Anxiety at the Start of the Pandemic: Differences by Gender and Race
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sample
2.2. Measures
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.4. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Demographics
3.2. Multiple Regression Model
3.3. Interaction Models
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Sample Total (N = 1182) | β (p) |
---|---|---|
Coronavirus Anxiety | 2.49 ± 0.66 | - |
Coronavirus crisis perception, a,b mean ± SD | 3.82 ± 0.83 | 0.42 (<0.001) |
Perceived economic risk of Coronavirus, a,c mean ± SD | 3.89 ± 0.99 | 0.23 (<0.001) |
General self-efficacy, a,d mean ± SD | 3.71 ± 0.72 | −0.12 (<0.001) |
Gender, e n (%) | ||
Female f | 596 (50.42) | 0.07 (0.04) |
Male f | 574 (48.56) | −0.08 (0.01) |
Other f | 12 (1.02) | 0.02 (0.43) |
Race, g n (%) | −0.16 (<0.001) | |
African American | 141 (11.93) | |
Asian | 64 (5.41) | |
Hispanic | 47 (3.98) | |
Native American | 7 (0.59) | |
Non-Hispanic White | 903 (76.40) | |
Other | 20 (1.69) | |
Annual Income, e,h n (%) | −0.01 (0.42) | |
No personal income | 30 (2.54) | |
Less than USD 20,000 | 179 (15.17) | |
USD 20,000 to USD 34,999 | 190 (16.07) | |
USD 35,000 to USD 49,999 | 190 (16.07) | |
USD 50,000 to USD 74,999 | 215 (18.19) | |
USD 75,000 to USD 99,999 | 144 (12.18) | |
USD 100,000 up to USD 114,999 | 77 (6.51) | |
USD 115,000 up to USD 129,999 | 45 (3.81) | |
USD 130,000 or more | 95 (8.04) | |
Do not wish to respond | 17 (1.44) | |
Education level, f,i n (%) | −0.01 (0.80) | |
Less than a high school diploma | 6 (0.51) | |
High school diploma or equivalent | 124 (10.49) | |
Some college, no degree | 269 (22.76) | |
Associate’s degree | 139 (11.76) | |
Bachelor’s degree | 414 (35.03) | |
Master’s degree | 155 (13.11) | |
Professional degree | 33 (2.79) | |
Doctorate degree | 33 (2.79) | |
Vocational training/trade | 7 (0.59) | |
Other; specify | 2 (0.17) | |
Age (years), f mean ± SD | 45.6 ± 15.7 | −0.001 (0.08) |
Employment, f,j n (%) | −0.03 (0.38) | |
Employed full time (≥40 h/week) | 428 (36.21) | |
Employed part time (<40 h/week) | 157 (13.28) | |
Unemployed and currently looking for work | 78 (6.60) | |
Unemployed and currently not looking for work | 12 (1.02) | |
Student | 61 (5.16) | |
Retired | 176 (14.89) | |
Homemaker | 63 (5.33) | |
Self-employed | 161 (13.62) | |
Unable to work | 46 (3.89) |
Coronavirus Anxiety ab | ||
---|---|---|
β (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Coronavirus crisis perception c | 0.46 (0.41, 1.00) | <0.001 |
Perceived economic crisis of Coronavirus d | 0.14 (0.09, 1.00) | <0.001 |
Self-efficacy e | −0.15 (−1.00, −0.11) | <0.001 |
Coronavirus Anxiety ab | ||
---|---|---|
β (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Interaction Model by Gender | ||
Coronavirus crisis perception c | 0.40 (0.34, 1.00) | <0.001 |
Perceived economic crisis of Coronavirus d | 0.14 (0.10, 1.00) | <0.001 |
Self-efficacy e | −0.15 (−1.00, −0.10) | <0.001 |
Coronavirus crisis perception c * gender (female = ref) | 0.11 (0.03, 1.00) | 0.01 |
Interaction Model by Race | ||
Coronavirus crisis perception c | 0.32 (0.19, 1.00) | <0.001 |
Perceived economic crisis of Coronavirus d | 0.14 (0.09, 1.00) | <0.001 |
Self-efficacy e | −0.15 (−1.00, −0.11) | <0.001 |
Coronavirus crisis perception c * race (White = ref) | 0.17 (0.03, 1.00) | 0.02 |
Interaction Model by Race | ||
Coronavirus crisis perception c | 0.46 (0.41, 1.00) | <0.001 |
Perceived economic crisis of Coronavirus d | 0.05 (−0.04, 1.00) | 0.35 |
Self-efficacy e | −0.16 (−1.00, −0.10) | <0.001 |
Perceived economic crisis of Coronavirus d * race (White = ref) | 0.11 (0.01, 1.00) | 0.03 |
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Garcia, S.; Hopfer, S.; Botes, E.; Greiff, S. Associations between Coronavirus Crisis Perception, Perceived Economic Risk of Coronavirus, General Self-Efficacy, and Coronavirus Anxiety at the Start of the Pandemic: Differences by Gender and Race. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 2872. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052872
Garcia S, Hopfer S, Botes E, Greiff S. Associations between Coronavirus Crisis Perception, Perceived Economic Risk of Coronavirus, General Self-Efficacy, and Coronavirus Anxiety at the Start of the Pandemic: Differences by Gender and Race. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(5):2872. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052872
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcia, Samantha, Suellen Hopfer, Elouise Botes, and Samuel Greiff. 2022. "Associations between Coronavirus Crisis Perception, Perceived Economic Risk of Coronavirus, General Self-Efficacy, and Coronavirus Anxiety at the Start of the Pandemic: Differences by Gender and Race" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 5: 2872. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052872