1. Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has spread rapidly worldwide, becoming a major threat to global public health [
1]. Mobility has been severely affected due to lockdowns and the different waves of the pandemic. Governments have legislated mobility restrictions and advised about the danger of infections on public and shared modes of transportation due to the fact that they are small enclosed spaces shared by a high number of people.
During past pandemics, travelling was perceived as one of the main channels of transmission and a source of infections [
2]. In fact, the perception of possible COVID-19 infection in different modes of public transportation such as buses, trains or aeroplanes [
3] has been exacerbated due to several factors. First, viral transmission rates seem to increase in small and overcrowded spaces. Second, studies (for example, [
3]) predicted that approximately 25% of COVID-19 infections could occur during the use of public transport. Third, research indicated that the virus was stable on surfaces and different materials for days [
4]. Finally, research (for example, [
3]) confirmed a significant positive relationship between use of public transport and the number of COVID-19 cases/deaths. Thus, it seemed plausible that the virus is transmissible in public transportation to some degree [
3]. As a consequence, in most countries, governments recommended avoiding unnecessary trips, especially in public mass transportation, such as disease measurement controls [
5]. However, although a direct relationship has not been proven yet, public sentiment is that public transportation represents an infection risk, and use is therefore avoided.
The current COVID-19 pandemic offers a new scenery for mobility. As explained in [
6], during the COVID-19 crisis a series of measures were taken to restrict travel and social activities outside the home in order to reduce the spread of the pandemic and its negative effects. These unprecedented measures have had a deep impact on the number and purpose of trips and modes of travel. Although the pandemic currently seems to be under control thanks to vaccines, and transport availability is almost back to normal, the extent of the changes in innovative mobility uses such as car sharing both while the pandemic continues and after the pandemic is over remains unclear nevertheless.
Car sharing has increased in the last ten years within both businesses and companies [
7]. Car sharing has emerged in large cities as a model of shared mobility that is very convenient due to its availability, low price, and other advantages, such as sustainability (see [
8] for review). In fact, previous research has pointed out that it is used as a car ownership substitution and a complement to public transportation, even in cities where there is a good public transportation system [
9]. In general, consumers tend to use this type of mobility for different types of trips such as business, leisure, and other personal trips such as shopping or visiting family [
10]. Car sharing is considered a social equity tool as well, ref. [
11] because it can contribute to empower women by means of improving women’s possibilities for independent mobility [
8]. Therefore, car sharing strategies can help governments in cities to promote the sustainable development goals (SDGs), specifically Goal 3 on gender equality, Goal 11 on sustainable cities and communities, and Goal 13 on climate action [
12]. Thus, the biggest cities in the world are implementing these strategies mainly based on electric mobility in order to build more sustainable cities [
7].
Car sharing is provided as a shared-mobility service that allows users to share a fleet of vehicles following two dominant forms: station-based and free-floating car sharing. Free-floating car sharing allows customers to temporarily use a car and leave it at the trip destination, where the next user will pick it up [
9]. Companies such as Uber are not considered car sharing companies and are not included in this study, as they provide vehicles with a driver similarly to a traditional taxi, while using an application to connect drivers and users (
www.uber.com, accessed on 16 December 2021).
Regarding the future of car sharing, ref. [
13] noted three possible scenarios for sharing mobility: (1) a slow return to the previous normality; (2) the collapse of shared mobility; and (3) increased adoption. Nevertheless, according to the best knowledge of the author, no research has been developed in this regard. Therefore, the aim of this study, which is explorative in nature, is to investigate the usage, drivers, and barriers of car sharing usage in the ongoing pandemic era. To this end, interviews were conducted among 66 car sharing users during the COVID-19 pandemic, identifying both the drivers and barriers to car sharing usage behaviour during and after the pandemic and their effect on car sharing companies and mobility in cities.
This research contributes to academic perspectives, business practice, and policy-making. From an academic perspective, this paper provides evidence on the dynamics of the feedback and empowerment of car sharing and contributes to shedding light on its impacts on mobility in cities; as [
14] (p. 2) outlined, “the dynamics and impacts of the sharing economy are more complex than they initially seem and thus it is necessary to analyse different angles and concepts”. Moreover, this study provides direct information on mobility behaviour in times of crisis.
For business practice, this research provides fresh insight into the future of car sharing, detecting the obstacles that shared mobility will experience in the near future. Thus, it can help car sharing mobility companies to survive this crisis and complex environment, adapting their operations and services to avoid losing customer trust. Finally, for policy makers, mobility sharing should be a relevant issue for achieving more resilient cities with post-Covid futures, and can contribute to achieving the SDGs.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows.
Section 2 is a review of the literature on car sharing, both before and after the lockdown due to the pandemic.
Section 3 describes the methodology used in the empirical study.
Section 4 presents the qualitative analysis and results. This article ends with a final section that contains an analysis of the results and conclusions based on empirical analysis, and proposes future lines of research.
4. Results
4.1. Car Sharing Usage during the Ongoing COVID-19 Pandemic
First, car sharing usage was established in order to answer RQ1: Usage of car sharing in the ongoing pandemic. Most of the participants continued to use car sharing services during the pandemic as before the pandemic (74% of participants). Thus, they declared that they used car sharing to go to work or university (75%), in the city centre where there are some restrictions such as low emissions areas (75%), or urgent short trips (43%). Several of the participants’ comments confirmed this fact (see
Table 2).
However, differences in the usage of car sharing can be found among men and women. Thus, 90% of women use car sharing to go shopping or carry out other family errands, while only 33% of men use this form of transport for the same activities. However, 52% of women use car sharing to go to work, while 73% of men use this transport to go to work. Trips to the city centre are similar between women and men. Nevertheless, this behaviour suggests that the number of trips is lower than before the pandemic, due to the fact that mobility continues to be restricted and complete normality has not yet returned. However, both, men and women have substituted car sharing for public transportation to go to work.
On the other hand, 6% of the participants asserted that they use car sharing more than before the pandemic to avoid other types of public transport. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify some changes in their behaviour.
Table 3 shows several of the car sharing users´ assertions about how they have increased their car sharing usage in the ongoing pandemic. Thus, participants pointed out that the possibility to increase the time using the car has been a successful factor in increasing car sharing usage.
Finally, 20% of the participants asserted that they use car sharing services less than before the COVID-19 pandemic. This situation is due to several reasons; 10% of the participants answered that they use car sharing for unexpected or urgent trips while the pandemic is ongoing. Comments are gathered in
Table 4.
Another 10% of the participants asserted that they prefer to avoid car sharing because they do not trust how the car is cleaned and disinfected. In other words, they do not feel safe and they mistrust how clean the car is (for example CSUser#60; CSUser#63) or distrust the behaviour of previous car sharing users (for example CSUser#48; CSUser#53).
Regarding the recommendation of car sharing use, 88% of participants recommend using car sharing, especially for urgent or unexpected trips. They prefer car sharing to other individual use of public transportation such as taxis.
According to the current usage of car sharing services, it is possible to identify new users’ profiles. Specifically, four different car sharing users’ profiles are emerging; these will be explained in the next section.
4.2. Emerging Car Sharing Profiles in the Ongoing Pandemic
The pre-pandemic car sharing user profile consists in the payment per use of the car when needed. Individuals gain the benefits of ownership of a private vehicle without the full associated costs of insurance, tax, parking, fuel costs, and others [
8].
However, the interviews provided new insights on car sharing profiles based on the level of car sharing usage during the ongoing pandemic and the perception of the health and safety of car sharing services. To answer RQ2: Emerging profiles of car sharing users during the ongoing pandemic, a matrix was created and four profiles were identified (see
Figure 1).
The first group is labelled Enthusiasts (6% of the participants). This type of car sharing user increased their car sharing usage after the lockdown and during the pandemic. This behaviour is driven by, on the one hand, the need to make changes in daily mobility and, on the other, by the need to maintain personal distance together with the wish to avoid crowds, for example, such as those on mass public transportation. This type of user is happy to extend their car sharing use due to their trust in the car sharing mechanisms used and their cleanliness and disinfection protocols. One relevant finding is that Enthusiasts are well-informed about the measures taken by car sharing companies regarding cleanliness and disinfection. Thus, they appreciated the information campaigns on these measures and pointed out that it is one of the main reasons to use this type of service, in addition to a very good experience regarding these issues.
Table 5 shows examples of their thoughts.
In addition, they take advantage of new car sharing services such as long period use, weekly, monthly, or weekends. CSUser#12 emphasises that “I have extended my usage of car sharing services. I have a car only for me. I can go to the city centre with an e-car without any restriction and I do not pay parking. It is great!” Thus, this means that in this type of car sharing services, customers can use the car without limitations as if it was their own car at a very fair price. Therefore, customers achieve high added value during the ongoing pandemic until the return of the previous situation. This new situation is profitable for car sharing providers as well, because they obtain a stable customer base and therefore a secure income to maintain their business.
The second group of car sharing users are called Cautious (46% of the participants). Cautious people are those that use car sharing in the same pattern as before the pandemic. However, they have fears about using mass public transportation, even car sharing. The main reason is that they distrust the cleanliness of the car and they are worried about the behaviour of the previous driver. Thus, participants confessed that they feel distrust regarding the cleanliness of the cars and fear that the previous user was infected or did not comply with the cleanliness and disinfection protocol. CSUser#2 “I use car sharing but always clean the car before and after its usage. I do not trust how it was cleaned before.” CSUser#31 explained “I have increased my own safety. For example, I always use a mask even though I travel alone or in spaces where it is not mandatory.”
Another problem is that sometimes users do not find any car clean nearby and it is necessary to look for another car (CSUser#4). A number of car sharing users (CSUser#27; CSUser#30; CSUser#49; CSUser#50; CSUser#59) asserted that they prefer to “use the car only for me, I distrust how the car is disinfected”.
The third group of emerging car sharing users are called Ambivalents (38% of the participants). This group use car sharing for the same short trips as before the pandemic. Nevertheless, their behaviour has changed because they do not need to make as many daily trips, in part due to the current mobility restrictions and in part due to changes in work and university study (teleworking and online classes). Thus, CSUser#19 explained “I have reduced my daily trips due to the restrictions of mobility measures, but I continue using car sharing. It is very useful for me”. Other users answered that their mobility has been reduced and they do not need any type of transportation. For example, CSUser#40 observed “I work at home and buy on the internet. I hardly leave the house. Therefore, I do not need this type of transportation, only in urgent or unexpected situations.”
Therefore, they choose different types of transport depending on the type of short trip, time of trip, or the place of trip. Thus, they mix their mobility using walking, bicycling, car sharing, or other public transportation. In addition, this group is willing to use another type of shared transport such as bicycles and scooters (CSUser#16; CSUser#51).
Finally, the last identified group is called Fearful. They represent 10% of the participants. This group distrusts car sharing services. They only use this type of transportation in very urgent situations. Moreover, they try to avoid all types of public transport and look for other ways to make essential daily short trips. They have swapped car use for walking when possible, or have bought a bicycle or a scooter, because these are cheaper than a private car and allow them to make daily short trips. In addition, users have bought their own car or family car due to their fear of sharing public transport with other people. Evidence is shown in
Table 6.
4.3. Advantages, Drivers and Obstacles to Car Sharing Usage during the Ongoing COVID-19 Pandemic
Regarding RQ3: Advantages, drivers and obstacles to use of car sharing during the ongoing pandemic, participants noticed that the two main advantages of car sharing are access to individual transportation and reduction in social contact. These advantages were confirmed by 100% of participants; in fact, all participants confirmed that they preferred using car sharing to mass public transportation during the current pandemic. The most mentioned advantage was the possibility of maintaining social distance (CSUser#5; CSUser#20).
In fact, car sharing users during the ongoing pandemic asserted that they feel safe because, in addition to the new car sharing company cleanliness protocols, they can clean and disinfect the car themselves and use personal protection such as the use of plastic covers on the seats or gloves (CSUser#1). Moreover, car sharing companies have included a protection kit in the car that contains masks and alcoholic gel (CSUser#12). Another advantage is that there are more cars available than before the pandemic (CSUser#4).
The drivers that boosted car sharing usage before the pandemic were its economic advantages, utility of service, reputation as an environmentally friendly choice, and fashion. The obstacles were mainly technological issues. Many people asserted that it is not very easy to use the app, cars were far from the user’s position, and women experienced safety problems [
8].
During the pandemic, cheap prices for car sharing continued to be the main driver. Thus, price is one of most repeated drivers for car sharing usage, especially regarding the advantages provided during the pandemic +.
In the same way, utility continues to be the second driver. Car sharing services are perceived as better than owning a car because there are no hidden costs and benefits like free parking, access to low emission zones, and the possibility of driving when there are restrictions due to high levels of pollution. This utility is based on ease of use, saving time, proximity to home, and the non-necessity of buying a car.
Finally, car sharing continues to be perceived as a choice that reduces pollution and congestion. Moreover, it promotes more sustainable consumption and social equity. Nevertheless, findings have shown three types of obstacle: (1) car sharing users; (2) cars; and (3) car sharing services. First, regarding car sharing users, they are very worried about the possibility of infection. They are afraid that not all car sharing users apply the disinfection protocol in a proper way. Another fear is about using this service at night, especially for women. This obstacle has been previously identified [
29]. Finally, car sharing users may find it difficult to use the mobile app [
8].
Second, several obstacles are linked directly with the car. Sometimes cars need charging, and it is necessary to look for another one. Another obstacle is that certain cars are not well maintained due to mistreatment and, again, it is necessary to look for another one. Both situations are a problem when the user is in a hurry. In addition, cars are not always available at a nearby location; therefore, users have to waste time and money looking for a car (for example CSUser#9; CSUser#14; CSUser#27; CSUser#35; CSUser#52; CSUser#55).
Finally, sometimes it is very difficult to find parking, especially at certain times, due to car sharing using regular parking and not having a specific space to park. Car sharing users complained about penalties following accidents or problems with the car (for example CSUser#12; CSUser#28; CSUser#30; CSUser#39; CSUser#55; CSUser#62; CSUser#65).
5. Conclusions
A proper measure to reduce the risk of viral transmission is deep sanitisation of common surfaces on public transportation. Previous research demonstrates that viral transmission from an infected person to others is the dominant form of transmission in confined spaces such as shared mobility [
5]. Although this relationship has not been proven, after the first year of the pandemic and with mobility restrictions continuing public sentiment is that public transportation represents an infection risk. This sentiment may change when the pandemic becomes more negligible. In order to protect the health of others and to achieve “normality” in daily mobility activities, this research provides relevant insights for car sharing providers, policymakers, and academia.
First, this research provides information about car sharing mobility behaviour. This knowledge is critical for a number of reasons; it helps car sharing companies to plan their operations and budget their incomes in short and mid-term periods, helps to understand the need of citizens to achieve a “normal” situation during the ongoing pandemic, provides urban policymakers with information about what type of public transportation is preferred by their citizens, and contributes to understanding consumer behaviour in critical times.
Second, this research provides information about the valuation by customers of the new services launched to face the pandemic. Car sharing users find high value in services such as the possibility of maintaining the same car for long periods. Thus, car sharing providers have the possibility of expanding their business with new services that help to maintain social distance and avoid mass public transportation. This provides information to policymakers in order to plan public transportation.
Third, different profiles of car sharing users have been identified. According to what we know, this is the first such research that has been conducted. Therefore, car sharing providers can adapt their services to each type of car sharing profile taking into account their fears and necessities. Thus, they are able to customise their offers and widen their customer base.
Fourth, the increase in the level of information on the existence, quality, and availability of car sharing services is important and very valued by car sharing users. Before COVID-19, car sharing users were worried about finding a car near their location to save money. During the ongoing pandemic, they are worried about what the cleanliness and disinfection protocols are and value other measures such as a personal kit to disinfect the vehicle. Car sharing providers should reinforce the value of car sharing services in facing the pandemic; a direct channel to answer user questions would be appreciated.
Finally, given that the COVID-19 pandemic may be with us for a while, it is relevant to understand mobility behaviour in cities. Car sharing providers and policymakers should work together to design the mobility services needed for citizens depending on the pandemic situation to avoid spreading the virus. Car sharing providers should assess the most effective car sharing practices in order to face the crisis and try to improve communication with users.
In future research, the advancement of car sharing adoption during the ongoing pandemic will be analysed using a quantitative approach.