Association between Physical Exercise and Glycated Hemoglobin Levels in Korean Patients Diagnosed with Diabetes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Study Population
2.3. Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Kaiser, A.B.; Zhang, N.; Van Der Pluijm, W. Global prevalence of type 2 diabetes over the next ten years (2018–2028). Diabetes 2018, 67, 202-LB. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, R.; Van Gaal, L.; Lucioni, C. Assessing the impact of complications on the costs of Type II diabetes. Diabetologia 2002, 45, S13–S17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- KOSIS. Cause of Death Statistics in the Republic Korea, 2019; Statistics Korea: Daejeon, Korea, 2021.
- Jung, C.-H.; Son, J.W.; Kang, S.; Kim, W.J.; Kim, H.-S.; Kim, H.S.; Seo, M.; Shin, H.-J.; Lee, S.-S.; Jeong, S.J. Diabetes Fact Sheets in Korea, 2020: An Appraisal of Current Status. Diabetes Metab. J. 2021, 45, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hur, K.Y.; Moon, M.K.; Park, J.S.; Kim, S.-K.; Lee, S.-H.; Yun, J.-S.; Baek, J.H.; Noh, J.; Lee, B.-W.; Oh, T.J. 2021 Clinical Practice Guidelines for Diabetes Mellitus in Korea. Diabetes Metab. J. 2021, 45, 461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lind, M.; Odén, A.; Fahlén, M.; Eliasson, B. The true value of HbA1c as a predictor of diabetic complications: Simulations of HbA1c variables. PLoS ONE 2009, 4, e4412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sanz, C.; Gautier, J.-F.; Hanaire, H. Physical exercise for the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab. 2010, 36, 346–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sigal, R.J.; Kenny, G.P.; Boulé, N.G.; Wells, G.A.; Prud’homme, D.; Fortier, M.; Reid, R.D.; Tulloch, H.; Coyle, D.; Phillips, P. Effects of aerobic training, resistance training, or both on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: A randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 2007, 147, 357–369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Byrkjeland, R.; Njerve, I.U.; Anderssen, S.; Arnesen, H.; Seljeflot, I.; Solheim, S. Effects of exercise training on HbA1c and VO2peak in patients with type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease: A randomised clinical trial. Diabetes Vasc. Dis. Res. 2015, 12, 325–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Larose, J. The Effect of Exercise Training on Physical Fitness in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus; University of Ottawa: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Marwick, T.H.; Hordern, M.D.; Miller, T.; Chyun, D.A.; Bertoni, A.G.; Blumenthal, R.S.; Philippides, G.; Rocchini, A. Exercise training for type 2 diabetes mellitus: Impact on cardiovascular risk: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2009, 119, 3244–3262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Snowling, N.J.; Hopkins, W.G. Effects of different modes of exercise training on glucose control and risk factors for complications in type 2 diabetic patients: A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2006, 29, 2518–2527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Boulé, N.G.; Haddad, E.; Kenny, G.P.; Wells, G.A.; Sigal, R.J. Effects of exercise on glycemic control and body mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. JAMA 2001, 286, 1218–1227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Umpierre, D.; Ribeiro, P.A.B.; Kramer, C.K.; Leitão, C.B.; Zucatti, A.T.N.; Azevedo, M.J.; Gross, J.L.; Ribeiro, J.P.; Schaan, B.D. Physical Activity Advice Only or Structured Exercise Training and Association With HbA1c Levels in Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA 2011, 305, 1790–1799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Church, T.S.; Blair, S.N.; Cocreham, S.; Johannsen, N.; Johnson, W.; Kramer, K.; Mikus, C.R.; Myers, V.; Nauta, M.; Rodarte, R.Q. Effects of aerobic and resistance training on hemoglobin A1c levels in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010, 304, 2253–2262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Choi, D.-W.; Jeon, J.; Lee, S.A.; Han, K.-T.; Park, E.-C.; Jang, S.-I. Association between smoking behavior patterns and glycated hemoglobin levels in a general population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kim, H.; Jeong, W.; Kwon, J.; Kim, Y.; Jang, S.-I.; Park, E.-C. Sex differences in type of exercise associated with depression in South Korean adults. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 18271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, E.Y.; Shim, Y.S.; Kim, Y.S.; Lee, S.P.; Ko, K.D.; Choi, W.-J. Adherence to general medical checkup and cancer screening guidelines according to self-reported smoking status: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2010–2012. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0224224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abbas, Y. Glycosylated Hemoglobin: The importance in management of type 2 diabetes. J. Stress Physiol. Biochem. 2011, 7, 122–129. [Google Scholar]
- Praet, S.F.; van Loon, L.J. Optimizing the therapeutic benefits of exercise in Type. Exp. Physiol. 2009, 94, 684–694. [Google Scholar]
- Najafipour, F.; Mobasseri, M.; Yavari, A.; Nadrian, H.; Aliasgarzadeh, A.; Abbasi, N.M.; Niafar, M.; Gharamaleki, J.H.; Sadra, V. Effect of regular exercise training on changes in HbA1c, BMI and VO2max among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: An 8-year trial. BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care 2017, 5, e000414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yavari, A.; Najafipoor, F.; Aliasgarzadeh, A.; Niafar, M.; Mobasseri, M. Effect of aerobic exercise, resistance training or combined training on glycaemic control and cardiovascular risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes. Biol. Sport 2012, 29, 135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Asif, M. The prevention and control the type-2 diabetes by changing lifestyle and dietary pattern. J. Educ. Health Promot. 2014, 3, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Albright, A.; Franz, M.; Hornsby, G.; Kriska, A.; Marrero, D.; Ullrich, I.; Verity, L.S. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and type 2 diabetes. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2000, 32, 1345–1360. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Harris-Hayes, M.; Schootman, M.; Schootman, J.C.; Hastings, M.K. The role of physical therapists in fighting the type 2 diabetes epidemic. J. Orthop. Sports Phys. Ther. 2020, 50, 5–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Park, J.-H.; Lee, Y.-E. Effects of exercise on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus in Koreans: The fifth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V). J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 2015, 27, 3559–3564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yoo, J.S.; Hwang, A.R.; Lee, H.C.; Kim, C.J. Development and validation of a computerized exercise intervention program for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Korea. Yonsei Med. J. 2003, 44, 892–904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lee, D.-C.; Park, I.; Jun, T.-W.; Nam, B.-H.; Cho, S.-i.; Blair, S.N.; Kim, Y.-S. Physical activity and body mass index and their associations with the development of type 2 diabetes in Korean men. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2012, 176, 43–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kim, D.J. The epidemiology of diabetes in Korea. Diabetes Metab. J. 2011, 35, 303–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Min, K.W.; An, K.H.; Sohn, T.S.; Park, Y.M.; Hong, Y.S.; Kim, Y.S.; Park, Y.B.; Park, K.S.; Lee, G.W.; Kim, I.J. The study of physical activity in the Korean with type 2 diabetes. J. Korean Diabetes Assoc. 2005, 29, 517–525. [Google Scholar]
Variables | Male | Female | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HbA1c Level | HbA1c Level | ||||||||||||||
TOTAL | ≥6.5% | <6.5% | p-Value | TOTAL | ≥6.5% | <6.5% | p-Value | ||||||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | ||||
Total (N = 2559) | 1286 | 100.0 | 910 | 70.8 | 376 | 29.2 | 1273 | 100.0 | 912 | 71.6 | 361 | 28.4 | |||
Physical exercise | 0.109 | 0.619 | |||||||||||||
Yes | 614 | 47.7 | 426 | 69.4 | 188 | 30.6 | 492 | 38.6 | 357 | 72.6 | 135 | 27.4 | |||
Only walking exercise | 302 | 23.5 | 220 | 72.8 | 82 | 27.2 | 389 | 30.6 | 287 | 73.8 | 102 | 26.2 | |||
Only resistance exercise | 150 | 11.7 | 104 | 69.3 | 46 | 30.7 | 49 | 3.8 | 34 | 69.4 | 15 | 30.6 | |||
Both | 162 | 12.6 | 102 | 63.0 | 60 | 37.0 | 54 | 4.2 | 36 | 66.7 | 18 | 33.3 | |||
No | 672 | 52.3 | 484 | 72.0 | 188 | 28.0 | 781 | 61.4 | 555 | 71.1 | 226 | 28.9 | |||
Age | <0.001 | 0.125 | |||||||||||||
19~39 | 24 | 1.9 | 17 | 70.8 | 7 | 29.2 | 22 | 1.7 | 13 | 59.1 | 9 | 40.9 | |||
40~49 | 114 | 8.9 | 94 | 82.5 | 20 | 17.5 | 72 | 5.7 | 58 | 80.6 | 14 | 19.4 | |||
50~59 | 258 | 20.1 | 200 | 77.5 | 58 | 22.5 | 207 | 16.3 | 154 | 74.4 | 53 | 25.6 | |||
over 60 | 890 | 69.2 | 599 | 67.3 | 291 | 32.7 | 972 | 76.4 | 687 | 70.7 | 285 | 29.3 | |||
Marital status | 0.330 | 0.546 | |||||||||||||
Married or Cohabiting | 1095 | 85.1 | 781 | 71.3 | 314 | 28.7 | 731 | 57.4 | 529 | 72.4 | 202 | 27.6 | |||
Else | 191 | 14.9 | 129 | 67.5 | 62 | 32.5 | 524 | 41.2 | 383 | 73.1 | 159 | 30.3 | |||
Educational level | 0.220 | 0.506 | |||||||||||||
High | 284 | 22.1 | 207 | 72.9 | 77 | 27.1 | 89 | 7.0 | 61 | 68.5 | 28 | 31.5 | |||
Middle | 421 | 32.7 | 306 | 72.7 | 115 | 27.3 | 249 | 19.6 | 185 | 74.3 | 64 | 25.7 | |||
Low | 581 | 45.2 | 397 | 68.3 | 184 | 31.7 | 935 | 73.4 | 666 | 71.2 | 269 | 28.8 | |||
Income | 0.003 | 0.405 | |||||||||||||
High | 277 | 21.5 | 216 | 78.0 | 61 | 22.0 | 163 | 12.8 | 123 | 75.5 | 40 | 24.5 | |||
Middle | 621 | 48.3 | 439 | 70.7 | 182 | 29.3 | 571 | 44.9 | 411 | 72.0 | 160 | 28.0 | |||
Low | 388 | 30.2 | 255 | 65.7 | 133 | 34.3 | 539 | 42.3 | 378 | 70.1 | 161 | 29.9 | |||
Occupation | 0.025 | 0.114 | |||||||||||||
White-collar | 208 | 16.2 | 155 | 74.5 | 53 | 25.5 | 60 | 4.7 | 45 | 75.0 | 15 | 25.0 | |||
Pink-collar | 89 | 6.9 | 68 | 76.4 | 21 | 23.6 | 144 | 11.3 | 110 | 76.4 | 34 | 23.6 | |||
Blue-collar | 472 | 36.7 | 345 | 73.1 | 127 | 26.9 | 228 | 17.9 | 173 | 75.9 | 55 | 24.1 | |||
Housewife or Inoccupation | 517 | 40.2 | 342 | 66.2 | 175 | 33.8 | 841 | 66.1 | 584 | 69.4 | 257 | 30.6 | |||
Region | 0.120 | 0.911 | |||||||||||||
Metropolitan city | 639 | 49.7 | 439 | 68.7 | 200 | 31.3 | 615 | 48.3 | 442 | 71.9 | 173 | 28.1 | |||
Rural | 647 | 50.3 | 471 | 72.8 | 176 | 27.2 | 658 | 51.7 | 470 | 71.4 | 188 | 28.6 | |||
BMI | 0.258 | 0.351 | |||||||||||||
Obesity | 597 | 46.4 | 426 | 71.4 | 171 | 28.6 | 629 | 49.4 | 462 | 73.4 | 167 | 26.6 | |||
Normal | 672 | 52.3 | 475 | 70.7 | 197 | 29.3 | 626 | 49.2 | 438 | 70.0 | 188 | 30.0 | |||
Low weight | 17 | 1.3 | 9 | 52.9 | 8 | 47.1 | 18 | 1.4 | 12 | 66.7 | 6 | 33.3 | |||
Drinking | 0.412 | 0.451 | |||||||||||||
Frequently | 726 | 56.5 | 503 | 69.3 | 223 | 30.7 | 184 | 14.5 | 129 | 70.1 | 55 | 29.9 | |||
Occasionally | 214 | 16.6 | 155 | 72.4 | 59 | 27.6 | 338 | 26.6 | 251 | 74.3 | 87 | 25.7 | |||
None | 346 | 26.9 | 252 | 72.8 | 94 | 27.2 | 751 | 59.0 | 532 | 70.8 | 219 | 29.2 | |||
Smoking | 0.053 | 0.317 | |||||||||||||
Current smoker | 374 | 29.1 | 282 | 75.4 | 92 | 24.6 | 52 | 4.1 | 36 | 69.2 | 16 | 30.8 | |||
Ex-smoker | 695 | 54.0 | 475 | 68.3 | 220 | 31.7 | 56 | 4.4 | 45 | 80.4 | 11 | 19.6 | |||
None | 217 | 16.9 | 153 | 70.5 | 64 | 29.5 | 1165 | 91.5 | 831 | 71.3 | 334 | 28.7 | |||
Management of Blood Glucose | <0.001 | <.0001 | |||||||||||||
Non-medication | 133 | 10.3 | 95 | 71.4 | 38 | 28.6 | 128 | 10.1 | 99 | 77.3 | 29 | 22.7 | |||
Only medication | 987 | 76.7 | 695 | 70.4 | 292 | 29.6 | 985 | 77.4 | 702 | 71.3 | 283 | 28.7 | |||
Only insulin | 11 | 0.9 | 9 | 81.8 | 2 | 18.2 | 16 | 1.3 | 15 | 93.8 | 1 | 6.3 | |||
Both medication and insulin | 63 | 4.9 | 57 | 90.5 | 6 | 9.5 | 73 | 5.7 | 67 | 91.8 | 6 | 8.2 | |||
None | 92 | 7.2 | 54 | 58.7 | 38 | 41.3 | 71 | 5.6 | 29 | 40.8 | 42 | 59.2 | |||
Chronic Disease | 0.131 | 0.048 | |||||||||||||
Only hypertension | 404 | 31.4 | 269 | 66.6 | 135 | 33.4 | 324 | 25.5 | 218 | 67.3 | 106 | 32.7 | |||
Only hyperlipidemia | 155 | 12.1 | 114 | 73.5 | 41 | 26.5 | 228 | 17.9 | 162 | 71.1 | 66 | 28.9 | |||
Both | 390 | 30.3 | 278 | 71.3 | 112 | 28.7 | 524 | 41.2 | 377 | 71.9 | 147 | 28.1 | |||
None | 337 | 26.2 | 249 | 73.9 | 88 | 26.1 | 197 | 15.5 | 155 | 78.7 | 42 | 21.3 | |||
Year | 0.015 | 0.596 | |||||||||||||
2015 | 214 | 16.6 | 66 | 30.8 | 148 | 69.2 | 197 | 15.5 | 51 | 25.9 | 146 | 74.1 | |||
2016 | 263 | 20.5 | 85 | 32.3 | 178 | 67.7 | 285 | 22.4 | 89 | 31.2 | 196 | 68.8 | |||
2017 | 261 | 20.3 | 87 | 33.3 | 174 | 66.7 | 261 | 20.5 | 77 | 29.5 | 184 | 70.5 | |||
2018 | 267 | 20.8 | 56 | 21.0 | 211 | 79.0 | 260 | 20.4 | 67 | 25.8 | 193 | 74.2 | |||
2019 | 281 | 21.9 | 82 | 29.2 | 199 | 70.8 | 270 | 21.2 | 77 | 28.5 | 193 | 71.5 |
Variables | Male | Female | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HbA1c Level < 6.5% | HbA1c Level < 6.5% | ||||||||
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | ||||||
Physical exercise | |||||||||
only walking exercise | 0.87 | (0.60–1.26) | 0.91 | (0.65–1.26) | |||||
only resistance exercise | 1.20 | (0.74–1.95) | 1.01 | (0.47–2.15) | |||||
Both | 1.85 | (1.17–2.92) | 1.08 | (0.54–2.17) | |||||
None | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Age | |||||||||
19~39 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
40~49 | 0.35 | (0.11–1.17) | 0.27 | (0.09–0.82) | |||||
50~59 | 0.66 | (0.22–2.04) | 0.70 | (0.25–1.95) | |||||
over 60 | 0.81 | (0.27–2.44) | 0.60 | (0.21–1.68) | |||||
Marital status | |||||||||
Married or Cohabiting | 1.12 | (0.74–1.71) | 1.13 | (0.82–1.54) | |||||
Else | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Educational level | |||||||||
High | 1.03 | (0.64–1.67) | 1.58 | (0.83–2.99) | |||||
Middle | 0.84 | (0.59–1.20) | 0.89 | (0.56–1.42) | |||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Income | |||||||||
High | 0.44 | (0.27–0.72) | 0.68 | (0.40–1.16) | |||||
Middle | 0.65 | (0.45–0.94) | 0.81 | (0.57–1.14) | |||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Occupation | |||||||||
White-collar | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Pink-collar | 0.82 | (0.41–1.65) | 1.11 | (0.45–2.74) | |||||
Blue-collar | 0.73 | (0.43–1.24) | 0.96 | (0.40–2.26) | |||||
Housewife or Inoccupation | 0.77 | (0.45–1.34) | 1.45 | (0.66-3.19) | |||||
Region | |||||||||
Metropolitan city | 1.36 | (1.00–1.84) | 0.94 | (0.70–1.27) | |||||
Rural | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
BMI | |||||||||
Obesity | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Normal | 0.76 | (0.56–1.04) | 1.20 | (0.89–1.62) | |||||
Low weight | 1.93 | (0.56–6.63) | 1.53 | (0.53–4.45) | |||||
Drinking | |||||||||
Frequently | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Occasionally | 0.59 | (0.39–0.89) | 0.86 | (0.53–1.39) | |||||
None | 0.74 | (0.51–1.08) | 0.97 | (0.61–1.53) | |||||
Smoking | |||||||||
Current smoker | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Ex-smoker | 1.41 | (0.99–2.03) | 0.54 | (0.19–1.56) | |||||
None | 1.10 | (0.69–1.76) | 0.71 | (0.33–1.56) | |||||
Management of Blood Glucose | |||||||||
Non-medication | 4.65 | (1.37–15.81) | 3.47 | (1.17–10.27) | |||||
Only medication | 5.17 | (1.63–16.38) | 4.73 | (1.78–12.59) | |||||
Only insulin | 7.51 | (1.17–48.23) | 2.37 | (0.25–22.98) | |||||
Both medication and insulin | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
None | 8.94 | (2.48–32.18) | 18.97 | (6.11–58.88) | |||||
Chronic Disease | |||||||||
Only hypertension | 1.07 | (0.73–1.55) | 1.09 | (0.75–1.57) | |||||
Only hyperlipidemia | 0.98 | (0.58–1.66) | 1.11 | (0.75–1.66) | |||||
Both | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
None | 0.83 | (0.55–1.25) | 0.52 | (0.32–0.85) |
Variables | Male | Female | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Physical Exercise | Physical Exercise | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
None | Only Walking | Only Resistance | Both | None | Only Walking | Only Resistance | Both | ||||||||||||||||||||
OR | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | ||||||||||||||
BMI | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Obesity | 1 | 0.97 | (0.57–1.66) | 1.28 | (0.66–2.45) | 2.12 | (1.06–4.25) | 1 | 0.89 | (0.53–1.47) | 0.68 | (0.21–2.23) | 2.89 | (1.15–7.27) | |||||||||||||
Normal | 1 | 0.9 | (0.54–1.50) | 1.15 | (0.56–2.38) | 1.76 | (0.96–3.22) | 1 | 0.91 | (0.57–1.45) | 1.09 | (0.40–2.95) | 0.44 | (0.15–1.27) | |||||||||||||
Low weight | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Drinking | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Frequently | 1 | 0.84 | (0.52–1.35) | 1.49 | (0.77–2.88) | 2.33 | (1.29–4.19) | 1 | 0.5 | (0.18–1.34) | 0.26 | (0.05–1.41) | 0.22 | (0.05–0.98) | |||||||||||||
Occasionally | 1 | 0.73 | (0.24–2.27) | 0.76 | (0.19–3.03) | 1.83 | (0.67–4.99) | 1 | 1.73 | (0.87–3.47) | 5.42 | (1.39–21.11) | 3.2 | (0.97–10.59) | |||||||||||||
None | 1 | 1.09 | (0.49–2.40) | 0.72 | (0.31–1.68) | 1.19 | (0.39–3.69) | 1 | 0.84 | (0.54–1.30) | 0.35 | (0.12–0.96) | 1.03 | (0.43–2.44) | |||||||||||||
Smoking | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Current smoker | 1 | 0.73 | (0.36–1.45) | 1.36 | (0.51–3.64) | 1.73 | (0.60–5.04) | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||
Ex–smoker | 1 | 0.98 | (0.59–1.64) | 1.26 | (0.68–2.35) | 1.73 | (0.97–3.09) | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||
None | 1 | 0.77 | (0.32–1.86) | 0.7 | (0.22–2.18) | 2.04 | (0.70–5.92) | 1 | 0.91 | (0.64–1.28) | 1.04 | (0.46–2.32) | 1.02 | (0.46–2.27) | |||||||||||||
Management of Blood Glucose | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Non–medication or etc | 1 | 0.71 | (0.19–2.58) | 0.96 | (0.16–5.57) | 3.22 | (0.84–12.30) | 1 | 0.19 | (0.04–0.93) | 0.04 | (0.00–1.86) | 1.05 | (0.15–7.64) | |||||||||||||
Only medication | 1 | 0.82 | (0.54–1.24) | 1.24 | (0.70–2.19) | 1.6 | (0.94–2.73) | 1 | 0.95 | (0.66–1.38) | 1.06 | (0.46–2.41) | 1.29 | (0.59–2.83) | |||||||||||||
Only insulin | 1 | 1 | (0.06–16.21) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | (0.02–51.80) | 1 | (0.02–51.80) | |||||||||||||||||
Both medication and insulin | 1 | 14.69 | (0.55–389.17) | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
None | 1 | 1.08 | (0.18–6.32) | 0.58 | (0.09–3.53) | 1.66 | (0.23–12.03) | 1 | 11.16 | (1.01–123.51) | 1.35 | (0.06–28.38) | 18.87 | (0.52–681.57) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Yun, I.; Joo, H.J.; Park, Y.S.; Park, E.-C. Association between Physical Exercise and Glycated Hemoglobin Levels in Korean Patients Diagnosed with Diabetes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 3280. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063280
Yun I, Joo HJ, Park YS, Park E-C. Association between Physical Exercise and Glycated Hemoglobin Levels in Korean Patients Diagnosed with Diabetes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(6):3280. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063280
Chicago/Turabian StyleYun, Il, Hye Jin Joo, Yu Shin Park, and Eun-Cheol Park. 2022. "Association between Physical Exercise and Glycated Hemoglobin Levels in Korean Patients Diagnosed with Diabetes" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 6: 3280. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063280