Social Capital as a Mediator and Moderator in the Association between Loneliness and Health, Israel as a Case Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Social Capital and Health
1.2. Social Capital and Loneliness
1.3. Aim of the Study
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Design and Sample
2.2. Measures
2.3. Data Analysis
2.4. Ethics
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Town A N = 981 | Town B N = 673 | Town C N = 1031 | Town D N = 1935 | P between Towns | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jews N = 787 | Arabs N = 244 | |||||
Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | ||
Age—mean years | 44.4 (15.3) | 47.4 (15.2) | 52.4 (17.11) | 47.0 (15.56) | 51.2 (15.3) | <0.001 |
P § | <0.001 | |||||
% | % | % | % | % | ||
Gender | 0.13 | |||||
Women | 51.0 | 55.3 | 55.6 | 53.3 | 55.2 | |
Men | 49.0 | 44.7 | 44.4 | 46.7 | 44.8 | |
P § | 0.28 | |||||
Education | <0.001 | |||||
Less than 12 years | 29.4 | 31.5 | 32.8 | 53.1 | 17.8 | |
12–14 | 49.3 | 46.7 | 50.0 | 37.1 | 42.3 | |
15 and above | 20.3 | 18.0 | 17.2 | 9.8 | 39.7 | |
P § | <0.001 | |||||
Religious | 72.3 | 91.9 | 33.0 | 41.8 | 11.4 | <0.001 |
Not religious | 27.3 | 8.1 | 67.0 | 58.2 | 88.6 | |
P § | 0.008 |
Town A N = 981 | Town B N = 673 | Town C N = 1050 | Town D N = 1935 | P between Towns | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jews | Arabs | |||||
% | % | % | % | % | ||
Self-rated health-(SRH) | <0.001 | |||||
Good (1) | 76.7 | 78.6 | 73.5 | 66.1 | 67.4 | |
Poor (0) | 23.3 | 21.4 | 26.5 | 33.9 | 32.6 | |
P § | 0.017 | |||||
Mental health | <0.001 | |||||
Good (0) | 50.1 | 52.8 | 42.5 | 44.1 | 35.6 | |
Poor (1) | 49.9 | 47.2 | 57.5 | 55.9 | 64.4 | |
P § | 0.35 | |||||
Loneliness | <0.001 | |||||
Never | 36.4 | 78.0 | 67.2 | 55.5 | 48.8 | |
Infrequently | 24.8 | 8.0 | 11.2 | 19.2 | 30.1 | |
Sometimes | 30.5 | 9.7 | 12.6 | 13.1 | 18.0 | |
Often | 7.9 | 4.4 | 9.0 | 12.2 | 3.2 | |
P § | 0.002 | |||||
Cognitive Social Capital | <0.001 | |||||
Low (0) | 42.0 | 38.7 | 41.2 | 51.0 | 76.3 | |
High (1) | 58.0 | 61.3 | 58.8 | 49.0 | 23.7 | |
P § | 0.024 | |||||
Structural Social Capital Mean (SD) | 15.8 (2.76) | 15.1 (3.06) | 11.8 (2.39) | 10.2 (2.75) | 13.6 (2.32) | <0.001 |
P § | <0.001 |
Town | Independent Variables | Cognitive Social Capital Logistic Regression | Structural Social Capital Linear Regression | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | CI | Beta adj | p | ||
Town A N = 954 | Gender | 0.76 | 0.58, 0.99 | −0.34 | <0.001 |
Age | 0.10 | 0.99, 1.01 | −0.14 | <0.001 | |
Education | 1.07 | 0.86, 1.33 | 0.26 | <0.001 | |
Religiosity | 0.65 | 0.47, 0.89 | −0.02 | 0.61 | |
Loneliness | 0.77 | 0.59, 1.01 | −0.08 | 0.004 | |
Town B N = 613 | Gender | 0.90 | 0.64, 1.27 | −0.24 | <0.001 |
Age | 0.99 | 0.98, 1.00 | −0.12 | 0.004 | |
Education | 0.76 | 0.59, 0.99 | 0.23 | <0.001 | |
Religiosity | 0.65 | 0.35, 1.19 | −0.05 | 0.25 | |
Loneliness | 0.81 | 0.50, 1.32 | −0.05 | 0.15 | |
Town C N = 1022 | Gender | 1.26 | 0.97, 1.65 | −0.18 | <0.001 |
Age | 1.01 | 1.00, 1.02 | −0.11 | 0.001 | |
Education | 1.75 | 1.42, 2.15 | 0.15 | <0.001 | |
Jews (1) vs. Arabs (2) | 0.86 | 0.63, 1.16 | −0.16 | <0.001 | |
Religiosity | 1.10 | 0.84, 144 | −0.09 | 0.003 | |
Loneliness | 0.68 | 0.49, 0.94 | −0.16 | <0.001 | |
Town D N = 1735 | Gender | 1.26 | 1.01. 1.58 | −0.07 | 0.003 |
Age | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.01 | −0.19 | <0.001 | |
Education | 0.94 | 0.79, 1.11 | 0.10 | <0.001 | |
Religiosity | 0.38 | 0.28, 0.53 | −0.03 | 0.18 | |
Loneliness | 0.98 | 0.73, 1.30 | −0.12 | <0.001 | |
Total population N = 4329 | Gender | 1.01 | 0.89, 1.14 | −0.17 | <0.001 |
Age | 0.99 | 0.99, 1.00 | −0.21 | <0.001 | |
Education | 0.91 | 0.83, 1.00 | 0.19 | <0.001 | |
Religiosity | 0.40 | 0.36, 0.46 | −0.23 | <0.001 | |
Loneliness | 0.88 | 0.76, 1.02 | −0.02 | 0.11 |
Town | Independent Variables | SRH | Mental Health | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | ||||||
OR | CI | OR | CI | OR | CI | OR | CI | ||
Total N = 4279 | Gender | 0.87 | 0.74, 1.03 | 0.88 | 0.74, 1.04 | 1.15 | 1.01, 1.30 | 1.14 | 1.00, 1.29 |
Age | 0.93 | 0.92, 0.93 | 0.93 | 0.92, 0.93 | 1.02 | 1.02, 1.02 | 1.02 | 1.01, 1.02 | |
Education | 1.15 | 1.02, 1.30 | 1.15 | 1.02, 1.30 | 1.15 | 1.04, 1.26 | 1.15 | 1.04, 1.26 | |
Religiosity | 1.13 | 0.94, 1.35 | 1.13 | 0.94, 1.35 | 1.17 | 1.03, 1.35 | 1.18 | 1.03, 1.35 | |
Loneliness | 0.48 | 0.40, 0.58 | 0.26 | 0.06, 0.40 | 1.94 | 1.66, 2.27 | 10.14 | 4.53, 22.7 | |
Structural Social capital | 1.14 | 1.10, 1.18 | 1.02 | 0.93, 1.12 | 0.92 | 0.90, 0.94 | 1.06 | 0.99, 1.14 | |
Loneliness * Structural Social capital | - | - | 1.09 | 1.02, 1.17 | 0.89 | 0.84, 0.94 | |||
Town A N = 941 | Gender | 0.95 | 0.65, 1.40 | 0.94 | 0.64, 1.37 | 1.07 | 0.80, 1.41 | 1.07 | 0.81, 1.42 |
Age | 0.95 | 0.94, 0.97 | 0.95 | 0.94, 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.03 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.01 | |
Education | 1.31 | 0.80, 2.07 | 1.31 | 0.96, 1.78 | 0.88 | 0.70, 1.10 | 0.88 | 0.70, 1.10 | |
Religiosity | 1.29 | 0.81, 2.10 | 1.31 | 0.81, 2.10 | 0.60 | 0.44, 0.82 | 0.60 | 0.44, 0.82 | |
Loneliness | 0.85 | 0.59, 1.21 | 4.19 | 0.54, 32.3 | 0.79 | 0.60, 1.04 | 0.43 | 0.09, 2.09 | |
Structural Social capital | 1.18 | 1.10, 1.27 | 1.37 | 1.11, 1.68 | 0.98 | 0.93, 1.04 | 0.93 | 0.81, 1.08 | |
Loneliness * Structural Social capital | - | - | 0.90 | 0.79, 1.03 | 1.04 | 0,94, 1.15 | |||
Town B N =611 | Gender | 1.00 | 0.63, 1.60 | 1.00 | 0.63, 1.61 | 1.15 | 0.82, 1.62 | 1.15 | 0.82, 1.62 |
Age | 0.95 | 0.94, 0.97 | 0.95 | 0.94, 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.02 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.02 | |
Education | 1.56 | 1.07, 2.28 | 1.57 | 1.08, 2.30 | 1.06 | 0.81, 1.38 | 1.06 | 0.81, 1.38 | |
Religiosity | 0.80 | 0.33, 1.94 | 0.81 | 0.33, 1.97 | 1.56 | 0.83, 2.91 | 1.56 | 0.83, 2.91 | |
Loneliness | 0.47 | 0.26, 0.83 | 0.23 | 0.01, 5.44 | 2.89 | 1.73, 4.82 | 1.70 | 0.12, 23.4 | |
Structural Social capital | 1.19 | 1.09, 1.30 | 1.12 | 0.86, 1.47 | 0.97 | 0.92, 1.03 | 0.94 | 0.76, 1.15 | |
Loneliness * Structural Social capital | - | - | 1.05 | 0.84, 1.31 | 1.04 | 0.87, 1.24 | |||
Town C N= 937 | Gender | 0.83 | 0.57, 1.21 | 0.83 | 0.57, 1.12 | 1.30 | 0.98, 1.72 | 1.30 | 0.98, 1.72 |
Age | 0.94 | 0.93, 0.95 | 0.94 | 0.92, 0.95 | 1.01 | 1.00, 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.00, 1.02 | |
Education | 1.49 | 1.14, 1.94 | 1.49 | 1.14, 1.94 | 1.00 | 0.81, 1.25 | 1.00 | 0.81, 1.25 | |
Religiosity | 1.25 | 0.86, 1.27 | 1.25 | 0.86, 1.82 | 1.16 | 0.86, 1.55 | 1.16 | 0.86, 1.55 | |
Loneliness | 0.26 | 0.17, 0.39 | 0.07 | 0.01, 0.66 | 9.50 | 5.64, 16.0 | 14.1 | 0.94, 213 | |
Jews (1) Vs. Arabs (2) | 0.63 | 0.40, 0.99 | 0.58 | 0.38, 0.89 | 0.89 | 0.62, 1.28 | 0.89 | 0.62, 1.28 | |
Structural Social capital | 1.10 | 1.01, 1.20 | 0.95 | 0.74, 1.23 | 1.06 | 0.99, 1.13 | 1.10 | 0.84, 1.44 | |
Loneliness * Structural Social capital | - | - | 1.12 | 0.92, 1.36 | 0.96 | 0.76, 1.23 | |||
Town D N = 1785 | Gender | 0.87 | 0.67, 1.14 | 0.86 | 0.66, 1.13 | 1.12 | 0.90, 1.38 | 1.11 | 0.90, 1.38 |
Age | 0.89 | 0.88, 0.90 | 0.89 | 0.88, 0.90 | 1.03 | 1.03, 1.04 | 1.03 | 1.03, 1.04 | |
Education | 1.09 | 0.90, 1.33 | 1.09 | 0.90, 1.33 | 1.17 | 1.00, 1.38 | 1.17 | 0.99, 1.38 | |
Religiosity | 1.79 | 1.15, 2.77 | 1.81 | 1.17, 2.80 | 1.02 | 0.72, 1.45 | 1.02 | 0.72, 1.45 | |
Loneliness | 0.59 | 0.42, 0.82 | 0.11 | 0.02, 0.85 | 2.64 | 1.91, 3.64 | 1.24 | 0.20 7.84 | |
Structural Social capital | 1.27 | 1.27, 1.36 | 1.09 | 0.90, 1.32 | 0.77 | 0.73, 0.82 | 0.72 | 0.62, 0.85 | |
Loneliness * Structural Social capital | - | - | 1.13 | 0.98, 1.32 | 1.06 | 0.93, 1.20 |
Town | Independent Variables | SRH | Mental Health | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | ||||||
OR | CI | OR | CI | OR | CI | OR | CI | ||
Total N = 4279 | Gender (Men-1, Women-2) | 0.76 | 0.65, 0.89 | 0.76 | 0.65, 0.90 | 1.12 | 1.01, 1.41 | 1.24 | 1.09, 1.41 |
Age | 0.92 | 0.92, 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.92, 0.93 | 1.02 | 1.02, 1.03 | 1.02 | 1.02, 1.03 | |
Education | 1.30 | 1.16, 1.46 | 1.30 | 1.15, 1.46 | 1.07 | 0.97, 1.17 | 1.07 | 0.97, 1.18 | |
Religiosity | 1.03 | 0.86, 1.22 | 1.03 | 0.87, 1.23 | 1.22 | 1.07, 1.39 | 1.22 | 1.06, 1.39 | |
Loneliness | 0.44 | 0.37, 0.53 | 0.42 | 0.34, 0.51 | 1.98 | 1.69, 2.32 | 2.08 | 1.74, 2.49 | |
Cognitive social capital | 1.57 | 1.33, 1.86 | 1.29 | 0.94, 1.78 | 0.72 | 0.63, 0.82 | 0.82 | 0.64, 1.04 | |
Loneliness * Cognitive social capital | - | 1.11 | 0.96, 1.29 | - | 0.93 | 0.83, 1.05 | |||
Town A N = 941 | Gender (Men-1, Women-2) | 0.70 | 0.49, 1.00 | 0.69 | 0.49, 0.97 | 1.14 | 0.87, 1.48 | 1.14 | 0.88, 1.49 |
Age | 0.95 | 0.94, 0.97 | 0.95 | 0.94, 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.01 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.01 | |
Education | 1.53 | 1.14, 2.06 | 1.56 | 1.16, 2.10 | 0.86 | 0.69, 1.07 | 0.84 | 0.67, 1.05 | |
Religiosity | 1.28 | 0.80, 2.06 | 1.29 | 0.81, 2.07 | 0.62 | 0.45, 0.85 | 0.62 | 0.45, 0.84 | |
Loneliness | 0.79 | 0.56, 1.12 | 0.94 | 0.62, 1.43 | 0.81 | 0.61, 1.06 | 0.71 | 0.51, 0.98 | |
Cognitive social capital | 1.12 | 0.79, 1.58 | 1.77 | 0.97, 3.62 | 1.43 | 1.10, 1.87 | 1.00 | 0.58, 1.71 | |
Loneliness * Cognitive social capital | - | 0.82 | 0.64, 1.07 | - | 1.17 | 0,95, 1.44 | |||
Town B N = 611 | Gender | 0.77 | 0.45, 1.20 | 0.77 | 0.49, 1.20 | 1.20 | 0.86, 1.67 | 1.20 | 0.86, 1.67 |
Age | 0.95 | 0.93, 0.97 | 0.95 | 0.93, 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.07 | 1.00 | 0.99, 1.02 | |
Education | 1.89 | 1.31, 2.73 | 1.89 | 1.31, 2.73 | 1.03 | 0.78, 1.33 | 1.03 | 0.81, 1.33 | |
Religiosity | 0.76 | 0.32, 1.83 | 0.80 | 0.33, 1.94 | 1.54 | 0.82, 2.88 | 1.51 | 0.81, 2.84 | |
Loneliness | 0.45 | 0.26, 0.80 | 0.38 | 0.20, 0.72 | 2.86 | 1.71, 4.78 | 2.89 | 1.79, 5.73 | |
Cognitive social capital | 1.54 | 0.99, 2.39 | 1.05 | 0.47, 2.34 | 0.82 | 0.58, 1.14 | 1.02 | 0.55, 1.87 | |
Loneliness * Cognitive social capital | - | 1.28 | 0.83, 1.98 | - | 0.87 | 0.62, 1.22 | |||
Town C N = 937 | Gender | 0.69 | 0.48, 0.99 | 0.69 | 0.48, 0.99 | 1.30 | 0.98, 1.69 | 1.29 | 0.98, 1.69 |
Age | 0.93 | 0.92, 0.94 | 0.93 | 0.92, 0.94 | 1.01 | 1.00, 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.00, 1.02 | |
Education | 1.58 | 1.22, 2.05 | 1.55 | 1.19, 2.01 | 1.05 | 0.84, 1.29 | 1.07 | 0.86, 1.32 | |
Religiosity | 1.26 | 0.89, 1.80 | 1.29 | 0.91, 1.85 | 1.11 | 0.84, 1.47 | 1.09 | 0.82, 1.45 | |
Loneliness | 0.23 | 0.15, 0.33 | 0.17 | 0.11, 0.27 | 9.00 | 5.60, 14.4 | 12.2 | 7.01, 21.3 | |
Jews (1) Vs. Arabs (2) | 0.49 | 0.33, 0.74 | 0.48 | 0.32, 0.73 | 0.91 | 0,65, 1.27 | 0.92 | 0.66, 1.28 | |
Cognitive social capital | 1.42 | 1.00, 2.01 | 0.74 | 0.39, 1.38 | 0.70 | 0.54, 0.93 | 1.19 | 0.72, 1.95 | |
Loneliness * Cognitive social capital | - | 1.49 | 1.08, 2.04 | - | 0.70 | 0.52, 0.93 | |||
Town D N = 1785 | Gender | 0.83 | 0.64, 1.09 | 0.83 | 0.63, 1.08 | 1.21 | 0.98, 1.50 | 1.21 | 0.98, 1.50 |
Age | 0.88 | 0.87, 0.89 | 0.88 | 0.87, 0.89 | 1.04 | 1.03, 1.05 | 1.04 | 1.03, 1.05 | |
Education | 1.17 | 0.96, 1.42 | 1.17 | 0.96, 1.42 | 1.07 | 0.91, 1.26 | 1.07 | 0.91, 1.26 | |
Religiosity | 1.68 | 1.08, 2.62 | 1.66 | 1.07, 2.58 | 0.91 | 0.64, 1.31 | 0.93 | 0.65, 1.34 | |
Loneliness | 0.47 | 0.34, 0.65 | 0.42 | 0.29, 0.59 | 2.88 | 2.08, 3.97 | 3.37 | 2.35, 4.82 | |
Cognitive social capital | 1.61 | 1.17, 2.17 | 0.91 | 0.47, 1.78 | 0.46 | 0.36, 0.59 | 0.78 | 0.47, 1.30 | |
Loneliness * Cognitive social capital | - | 1.40 | 0.99, 1.98 | - | 0.73 | 0.56, 0.96 |
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Baron-Epel, O.; Elran-Barak, R.; Donchin, M. Social Capital as a Mediator and Moderator in the Association between Loneliness and Health, Israel as a Case Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 3698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063698
Baron-Epel O, Elran-Barak R, Donchin M. Social Capital as a Mediator and Moderator in the Association between Loneliness and Health, Israel as a Case Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(6):3698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063698
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaron-Epel, Orna, Roni Elran-Barak, and Milka Donchin. 2022. "Social Capital as a Mediator and Moderator in the Association between Loneliness and Health, Israel as a Case Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 6: 3698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063698