The Oneiric Activity during and after the COVID-19 Total Lockdown in Italy: A Longitudinal Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design
2.2. Materials
- (a)
- Demographic and COVID-19 related variables: we administered a questionnaire to collect information about age, gender, education, occupation, Italian area, exposure to COVID-19 at the workplace, cohabitation, having a relative/friend affected by COVID-19, forced quarantine for suspected COVID-19 infection, daily hours spent using digital media.
- (b)
- Anxiety symptoms: we administered the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Y, I-II; [37,38]) to assess anxiety symptoms. This is a self-reported questionnaire, consisting of 40 items: 20 for the evaluation of state-like anxiety (STAI-Y I) and 20 for trait-like anxiety (STAI-Y II). A significant level of anxiety is indicated by scores ≥ 40. In the current sample, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.95 at TL and 0.96 at PL for STAI-Y I, 0.93 at TL and PL for STAI-Y II.
- (c)
- (d)
- Sleep Quality: we administered the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI; [41]) to assess sleep quality. This is a self-reported questionnaire consisting of 19 items, resulting in 7 subscales (sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep disturbances, use of sleep medications, daytime dysfunction) and a global sleep quality score. A PSQI global score > 5 indicates poor subjective sleep quality. In the present sample, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.76 at TL and 0.79 at PL. We also used the PSQI-Addendum (PSQI-A; [42]) to evaluate trauma-related subjective sleep disturbances. This is a self-report assessment of seven disruptive nocturnal behaviours commonly observed in individuals with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): flashes, general nervousness, memories or nightmares of traumatic experience, severe anxiety or panic not related to traumatic memories, bad dreams not related to traumatic memories, episodes of terror or screaming during sleep without full awakening, episodes of acting out dreams (i.e., kicking, punching, running, screaming). A PSQI-A score ≥ 4 is predictive for the discrimination of individuals with and without PTSD [42]. The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.75 at TL and 0.73 at PL in the current study.
- (e)
- Dream features: we collected information on several dream variables referred to the last month. Specifically, we asked the participants to score dream and lucid dream frequency on a 7-point (0–6) Likert scale and different qualitative dream features (i.e., emotional load, vividness, bizarreness, length) on a 6-point (1–6) Likert scale [19,43,44,45,46,47]. Moreover, participants reported the most frequent dream emotion, choosing from happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, pleasure, guilt, shame, surprise. Finally, participants were asked to report the presence of specific dream contents from a list (Table 1) adapted from the Typical Dream Questionnaires (TDS; [48]).
2.3. Statistics
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Features
3.2. COVID-19 Related, Clinical, and Sleep Changes
3.3. Dream Changes
4. Discussion
4.1. Quantitative and Qualitative Aspects of Dreams
4.2. Dream Contents
4.3. Dream Emotional Tone
4.4. Sleep Pattern, Clinical Measures and COVID-19 Related Variables
4.5. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dream Contents | |
---|---|
1. Being chased or pursued, but not physically injured | 32. Fire |
2. Being injured | 33. A person now dead as alive |
3. Being physically attacked (beaten, stabbed, raped, etc.) | 34. A person now alive as dead |
4. Trying again and again to do something | 35. Failing an examination |
5. Being frozen with fright | 36. Suffocation, breathing problems |
6. Food, eating | 37. Feral and violent animal |
7. Arriving too late, e.g., missing a train | 38. Pandemic/epidemic |
8. Swimming | 39. Being at a movie/cartoon/videogame/comic book |
9. Being isolated/locked up/shut down | 40. Killing someone |
10. Pets | 41. Lunatics or insane |
11. Money | 42. Being half awake and paralyzed in bed |
12. Flying or soaring through the air | 43. Seeing a face very close to you |
13. Falling or being on the verge of falling | 44. Seeing and UFO or an extra-terrestrial |
14. Being inappropriately dressed | 45. Being an animal |
15. Being nude | 46. Being a child again |
16. Being tired, unable to move | 47. Seeing an angel or encountering God in some form |
17. Being infected by a virus | 48. Discovering a new room at home |
18. Having superior knowledge, superpowers or magic abilities | 49. Airplane crash |
19. Seeing him/herself in the mirror | 50. Someone having an abortion |
20. Natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, tornados…) | 51. Being sick |
21. Insects, spiders or snakes | 52. Being close to some sick |
22. Being a member of the opposite sex | 53. Zombies |
23. Being an object (e.g., tree or rock) | 54. Dictatorship |
24. Encountering a kind of evil force, monsters or demon | 55. Being betrayed |
25. Your teeth falling out/losing your teeth | 56. Being at the workplace |
26. Being killed or seeing yourself as dead | 57. Loved ones (family, friends) |
27. Vividly sensing, but not necessarily seeing or hearing, a presence in the room | 58. Being in crowded places (restaurants, clubs, concerts…) |
28. Being unable to find, or embarrassed about using a toilet | 59. War |
29. School, teachers, studying | 60. Travelling |
30. Sexual experiences | 61. Social media interactions (video calls, chats, …) |
31. Losing control of a vehicle | 62. Be possessed |
Overall Sample (n = 108) | ||
---|---|---|
N | % | |
Gender | ||
Male | 25 | 23.15 |
Female | 83 | 76.85 |
Age (Mean ± SE: 32.12 ± 1.29 years; range: 18–88) | ||
18–24 | 42 | 38.89 |
25–29 | 22 | 20.37 |
30–39 | 22 | 20.37 |
>40 | 22 | 20.37 |
Education | ||
Middle school | 1 | 0.93 |
High school | 33 | 30.55 |
Undergraduate/Graduate | 56 | 51.85 |
Post-graduate | 18 | 16.67 |
Occupation | ||
Student | 47 | 43.52 |
Employed/Self-employed | 47 | 43.52 |
Unemployed | 9 | 8.33 |
House husband/wife | 3 | 2.78 |
Retired | 2 | 1.85 |
Italian area | ||
North | 14 | 12.96 |
Center | 67 | 62.04 |
South | 27 | 25.00 |
Total Lockdown (TL) | Post-Lockdown (PL) | p | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | ||
COVID-19 related features | |||||
COVID-19 exposure at the workplace | 0.19 | ||||
Not employed | 31 | 28.71 | 29 | 26.85 | |
Not Exposed | 56 | 51.85 | 51 | 47.22 | |
Exposed | 21 | 19.44 | 28 | 25.93 | |
Cohabitation | 1.00 | ||||
Alone | 15 | 13.89 | 14 | 12.96 | |
With others | 93 | 86.11 | 94 | 87.04 | |
Knowing a relative/friend infected by COVID-19 | 0.33 | ||||
Yes | 16 | 14.81 | 21 | 19.44 | |
No | 92 | 85.19 | 87 | 80.56 | |
Forced quarantine for suspected COVID-19 infection | 1.00 | ||||
Yes | 12 | 11.11 | 11 | 10.18 | |
No | 96 | 88.89 | 97 | 89.81 | |
Sleep and clinical features | |||||
PSQI Global a | 0.60 | ||||
PSQI ≤ 5 | 51 | 47.66 | 55 | 50.93 | |
PSQI > 5 | 56 | 52.34 | 53 | 49.07 | |
PSQI-A a | * 0.001 | ||||
PSQI-A ≤ 3 | 38 | 35.51 | 56 | 51.85 | |
PSQI-A > 3 | 69 | 64.48 | 52 | 48.16 | |
STAI-I | 0.54 | ||||
STAI-I ≤ 39 | 35 | 32.41 | 39 | 36.11 | |
STAI-I > 39 | 73 | 67.59 | 69 | 63.89 | |
STAI-II | 0.38 | ||||
STAI-II ≤ 39 | 33 | 30.56 | 38 | 35.18 | |
STAI-II > 39 | 75 | 69.44 | 70 | 64.82 | |
BDI | 1.00 | ||||
BDI ≤ 13 | 72 | 66.67 | 72 | 66.67 | |
BDI > 13 | 36 | 33.33 | 36 | 33.33 |
Total Lockdown (TL) Mean ± SE | Post-Lockdown (PL) Mean ± SE | t107 | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Time with digital media (h/d) | 7.81 ± 0.29 | 7.03 ± 0.29 | −2.77 | 0.007 * |
STAI-I | 46.45 ± 1.15 | 46.19 ± 1.30 | −0.24 | 0.81 |
STAI-II | 44.86 ± 1.11 | 44.81 ± 1.11 | −0.06 | 0.95 |
BDI | 11.94 ± 0.85 | 11.33 ± 0.92 | −0.72 | 0.47 |
PSQI Global score | 6.58 ± 0.33 | 6.04 ± 0.33 | −1.76 | 0.08 |
PSQI C1 Sleep quality | 1.25 ± 0.07 | 1.17 ± 0.06 | −1.13 | 0.26 |
PSQI C2 Sleep latency | 1.34 ± 0.10 | 0.95 ± 0.08 | −4.09 | <0.001 * |
PSQI C3 Sleep duration | 0.79 ± 0.08 | 0.91 ± 0.09 | 1.40 | 0.16 |
PSQI C4 Habitual Sleep Efficiency | 0.76 ± 0.09 | 0.61 ± 0.09 | −1.66 | 0.10 |
PSQI C5 Sleep disturbance | 1.27 ± 0.06 | 1.21 ± 0.05 | −1.35 | 0.18 |
PSQI C6 Sleeping Medication | 0.22 ± 0.07 | 0.22 ± 0.07 | 0.00 | 1.00 |
PSQI C7 Daytime dysfunctions | 0.94 ± 0.07 | 0.97 ± 0.07 | 0.38 | 0.71 |
PSQI-A | 5.63 ± 0.37 | 3.96 ± 0.31 | −5.68 | <0.001 * |
Being Frozen with Fright | Being Isolated/ Locked Up/ Shut Down | Being Half Awake and Paralyzed in Bed | Loved Ones | Being in Crowded Places | War | Traveling | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TL (%) | 32.41 | 28.70 | 25.00 | 91.67 | 49.07 | 17.59 | 48.15 |
PL (%) | 22.22 | 17.59 | 12.04 | 77.78 | 35.19 | 7.41 | 32.41 |
Change (%) | −10.19 | −11.11 | −12.96 | −13.89 | −13.88 | −10.18 | −15.74 |
Appearance at PL (n) | 7 | 7 | 4 | 3 | 14 | 2 | 11 |
Unchanged (n) | 83 | 82 | 86 | 87 | 65 | 93 | 69 |
Disappearance at PL (n) | 18 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 29 | 13 | 28 |
McNemar (p) | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.004 | 0.001 | 0.03 | 0.007 | 0.01 |
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Gorgoni, M.; Scarpelli, S.; Alfonsi, V.; Annarumma, L.; Pellegrini, E.; Fasiello, E.; Cordone, S.; D’Atri, A.; Salfi, F.; Amicucci, G.; et al. The Oneiric Activity during and after the COVID-19 Total Lockdown in Italy: A Longitudinal Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 3857. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073857
Gorgoni M, Scarpelli S, Alfonsi V, Annarumma L, Pellegrini E, Fasiello E, Cordone S, D’Atri A, Salfi F, Amicucci G, et al. The Oneiric Activity during and after the COVID-19 Total Lockdown in Italy: A Longitudinal Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(7):3857. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073857
Chicago/Turabian StyleGorgoni, Maurizio, Serena Scarpelli, Valentina Alfonsi, Ludovica Annarumma, Elisa Pellegrini, Elisabetta Fasiello, Susanna Cordone, Aurora D’Atri, Federico Salfi, Giulia Amicucci, and et al. 2022. "The Oneiric Activity during and after the COVID-19 Total Lockdown in Italy: A Longitudinal Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 7: 3857. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073857