Environmental Substances Associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease—A Scoping Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Pesticides
3.2. Cadmium
3.3. Chromium(VI)
3.4. Arsenic
3.5. Lead
3.6. Diisocyanates
3.7. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
4. Common Features of the Chemicals
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
- Exposure to pesticides in general and especially to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides and some herbicides, Pb, and PAHs showed an association with decreased lung function and an increased risk of COPD, whereas Cd, Cr, As, and diisocyanates can have a possible association.
- In epidemiological studies, an inverse association was observed between lung function parameters and levels of specific environmental substances in the measurement matrices.
- COPD might be an under-evaluated outcome in environmental studies, and therefore research should be extended to gain a better knowledge of the harmful effects of chemical exposure in the development of specific lung diseases.
- Chemical exposure is a matter of concern, and more epidemiological studies are necessary to protect public health and citizens from harmful levels of exposure to various environmental substances.
- So far, the combined impacts of different environmental substances on human health have been scarcely studied, although people are increasingly exposed to various substances. Therefore, joint assessment of the adverse effects is promptly required.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chemical | Routes and Sources of Exposure | Occupational Exposure | Vulnerable and High Exposure Risk Groups | Measurement Matrices |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pesticides [14,20,64] | Ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact; general population is exposed through pesticide residues in food | Agricultural workers mixing and applying pesticides onto crops and handling the crops after treatment and workers applying biocides are exposed through inhalation and dermal contact | Vulnerable groups: infants, children, and pregnant women Risk groups: agriculture farm workers and pesticide applicators | Urine, blood/serum and hair; urine is better matrix than blood (except for organochlorines) |
Cadmium (Cd) [14,27,28,65,66] | Ingestion and inhalation through air, water, and soil; general population is exposed through food, water, and tobacco smoke; foods: e.g., seafood, liver, kidney, wild mushrooms, flaxseed, coco powder, cereals, potatoes, and vegetables grown in contaminated soil | Workers in several industries are exposed through inhalation and soil | Vulnerable groups: individuals with iron deficiency, pregnant and postmenopausal women, new-borns, toddlers, and elderly Risk groups: smokers, vegetarians, overweight or obese people, people consuming large amounts of seafood, and industrial workers | Long-term accumulation/exposure (occupational or excessive exposure): urine Recent exposure: whole blood or red blood cells |
Chromium (Cr) (VI) [14,37,38] | Ingestion and inhalation through air, water, and soil; general population is exposed through Cr-contaminated soil, food, and water, inhalation of ambient air, and smoking | Workers in several industries are exposed through breathing contaminated occupational air | Risk groups: children (e.g., toys) and adults (e.g., leather and cosmetics), industrial occupational groups (e.g., welding), and smokers | Measuring mostly done in occupational settings where Cr is evaluated in urine and plasma and Cr(VI) in red blood cells |
Arsenic (As) [14,40] | Ingestion and inhalation through air, water, and soil; general population is exposed through ingestion via food, drinking water, and smoking | Workers in several industries are exposed through inhalation and dermal contact | Vulnerable groups: children Risk groups: industrial occupational groups in, e.g., gold mining, wood preservation, glass manufacturing, and smelting operations | Urine is a preferred measurement matrix; however, measurements of total As in urine do not show information of As species, sometimes measured from blood, even though inorganic and organic As have a short half-life in blood |
Lead (Pb) [14,46,67,68] | Ingestion and inhalation through air, water, and soil; general population is exposed through inhalation of Pb particles, ingestion of Pb-contaminated dust, water, or food, and Pb in bone releases trans-placentally into blood during pregnancy | Workers in certain industrial occupations are exposed through inhalation | Vulnerable groups: children Risk groups: industrial occupational groups in, e.g., mining and smelting | Recent exposure: blood Long-term exposure: bone (skeleton) and teeth, bone-Pb is a better indicator than blood-Pb in some situations; significant associations between bone-Pb and diseases and adverse effects have been reported |
Diisocyanates [14] | Ingestion and inhalation through air, water, and soil; general population is exposed through products containing diisocyanates, especially glues | Construction workers are exposed through inhalation, dermal contact, ingestion/gastrointestinal tract, and polyurethane foams | Risk groups: industrial occupational groups in, e.g., polyurethane manufacturing, welding, sawing, painting, and construction sector | Diisocyanate metabolites (diamines): urine, adduct analysis by using either albumin or haemoglobin adducts |
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) [14,56,68] | Ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact; general population is exposed through contaminated soil, water, and foods, vehicle emissions and transport, cigarette smoke, open burning, and food processing | Workers in several industries are exposed through inhalation of exhaust fumes | Vulnerable groups: children Risk groups: industrial occupational groups in, e.g., mining, metal, and oil refining, manufacture of plastics, dyes, and pesticides | PAHs and metabolites are measured mostly in urine |
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Elonheimo, H.M.; Mattila, T.; Andersen, H.R.; Bocca, B.; Ruggieri, F.; Haverinen, E.; Tolonen, H. Environmental Substances Associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease—A Scoping Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 3945. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073945
Elonheimo HM, Mattila T, Andersen HR, Bocca B, Ruggieri F, Haverinen E, Tolonen H. Environmental Substances Associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease—A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(7):3945. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073945
Chicago/Turabian StyleElonheimo, Hanna Maria, Tiina Mattila, Helle Raun Andersen, Beatrice Bocca, Flavia Ruggieri, Elsi Haverinen, and Hanna Tolonen. 2022. "Environmental Substances Associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease—A Scoping Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 7: 3945. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073945