The Associations between Caregivers’ Emotional and Instrumental Feeding, Children’s Emotional Eating, and Children’s Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Participants
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Instruments
2.4.1. Sociodemographic Information
2.4.2. Caregivers’ Emotional and Instrumental Feeding Practices
2.4.3. Children’s Emotional Eating Behaviours
2.4.4. Children’s UPF Consumption
2.5. Sample Size Estimation
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics of the Participants
3.2. Children’s Consumption of UPF
3.3. Associations between Caregivers’ Emotional and Instrumental Feeding and Children’s Consumption of UPF
3.4. The Effect of Children’s Emotional Eating on the Relationship between Caregiver’s Emotional and Instrumental Feeding and Children’s Consumption of UPF Item
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | n (%)/Mean (SD) |
---|---|
Caregiver’s relationship with the child | |
Parent | 309 (75.7) |
Nonparent | 99 (24.3) |
Caregiver’s education level | |
Senior middle school or below | 281 (68.9) |
College or above | 127 (31.1) |
Caregiver’s employment status | |
Unemployed | 216 (52.9) |
Employed | 192 (47.1) |
Caregiver’s weight status † | |
Underweight | 18 (4.5) |
Normal | 206 (51.7) |
Overweight | 116 (29.0) |
Obesity | 59 (14.8) |
Monthly household income | |
≤5000 CNY | 161 (39.5) |
>5000 CNY | 247 (60.5) |
Child’s age | |
6–24 months | 191 (46.8) |
25–36 months | 217 (53.2) |
Child’s gender | |
Boy | 213 (52.2) |
Girl | 195 (47.8) |
Timing of complementary feeding † | |
<6 months | 62 (15.2) |
6–8 months | 332 (81.4) |
>8 months | 13 (3.2) |
Caregivers’ emotional and instrumental feeding ‡ | 2.7 (0.8) |
Children’s emotional overeating ‡ | 2.1 (0.6) |
Children’s emotional undereating ‡ | 2.9 (0.8) |
UPF Items | Percentage of Consumption n (%) | Times of Consumption in a Week | Amount of Consumption in a Week (in g) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR) | ≥Median n (%) | Median (IQR) | ≥Median n (%) | ||
UPF | 354 (86.8) | 9 (4–14) | 210 (51.5) | 365.0 (62.0–813.8) | 204 (50.0) |
Sugar-sweetened beverages | 82 (20.1) | 0 (0–0) | - | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | - |
Solid or semi-solid dairy products | 240 (58.8) | 1 (0–5) | - | 100.0 (0.0–500.0) | 220 (53.9) |
Pastries | 259 (63.5) | 2 (0–5) | 217 (53.2) | 30.0 (0.0–136.3) | 205 (50.2) |
Savoury packaged snacks | 146 (35.8) | 0 (0–2) | - | 0.0 (0.0–40.0) | - |
Confectioneries | 156 (38.2) | 0 (0–2) | - | 0.0 (0.0–20.0) | - |
Reconstituted meat products | 230 (56.4) | 1 (0–3) | - | 19.0 (0.0–70.0) | 204 (50.0) |
Variables | UPF a | Sugar-Sweetened Beverages b | Solid or Semi-Solid Dairy Products c | Pastries d |
---|---|---|---|---|
Emotional and instrumental feeding | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.37 (0.95,1.98) | 1.68 (1.20,2.36) ** | 1.54 (1.18,2.00) ** | 1.37 (1.06,1.79) * |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.59 (1.01,2.49) * | 1.64 (1.17,2.31) ** | 1.61 (1.21,2.16) ** | 1.49 (1.12,1.99) ** |
Emotional overeating | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 0.90 (0.58,1.40) | 1.05 (0.72,1.53) | 0.88 (0.65,1.19) | 1.08 (0.79,1.48) |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.25 (0.76,2.04) | 1.10 (0.74,1.63) | 1.04 (0.75,1.46) | 1.29 (0.92,1.81) |
Emotional undereating | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.45 (1.03,2.04) * | 1.26 (0.92,1.70) | 1.21 (0.95,1.54) | 1.19 (0.93,1.52) |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.61 (1.07,2.42) * | 1.24 (0.91,1.69) | 1.25 (0.97,1.63) | 1.20 (0.93,1.55) |
Savoury Packaged Snacks e | Confectioneries f | Reconstituted Meat Products g | ||
Emotional and instrumental feeding | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.60 (1.21,2.11) ** | 1.27 (0.98,1.66) | 1.22 (0.95,1.58) | |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.58 (1.20,2.09) ** | 1.28 (0.96,1.70) | 1.31 (0.99,1.74) | |
Emotional overeating | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.12 (0.82,1.53) | 0.89 (0.65,1.21) | 1.04 (0.77,1.40) | |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.20 (0.87,1.66) | 1.12 (0.79,1.59) | 1.28 (0.91,1.79) | |
Emotional undereating | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.12 (0.87,1.43) | 1.14 (0.89,1.46) | 1.40 (1.10,1.79) ** | |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.12 (0.87,1.43) | 1.15 (0.88,1.51) | 1.46 (1.12,1.90) ** |
Variables | UPF (≥9 times/week) a | Pastries (≥2 times/week) b |
---|---|---|
Emotional and instrumental feeding | ||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.71 (1.31,2.23) *** | 1.29 (1.00,1.67) * |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.80 (1.35,2.39) *** | 1.36 (1.03,1.78) * |
Emotional overeating | ||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.05 (0.78,1.41) | 1.04 (0.77,1.40) |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.30 (0.93,1.81) | 1.20 (0.87,1.65) |
Emotional undereating | ||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.29 (1.02,1.64) * | 1.03 (0.81,1.31) |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.33 (1.03,1.73) * | 1.04 (0.81,1.33) |
Variables | UPF (≥365 g/week) a | Solid or Semi-Solid Dairy Products (≥100 g/week) b | Pastries (≥30 g/week) c | Reconstituted Meat Products (≥19 g/week) d |
---|---|---|---|---|
Emotional and instrumental feeding | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.70 (1.30,2.21) *** | 1.50 (1.16,1.95) ** | 1.47 (1.14,1.91) ** | 1.30 (1.01,1.68) |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.85 (1.38,2.49) *** | 1.55 (1.16,2.07) ** | 1.54 (1.16,2.02) ** | 1.38 (1.04,1.81) * |
Emotional overeating | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 0.77 (0.57,1.05) | 0.89 (0.66,1.20) | 0.92 (0.68,1.25) | 0.98 (0.72,1.32) |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 0.90 (0.64,1.26) | 1.06 (0.76,1.48) | 1.11 (0.80,1.53) | 1.17 (0.84,1.63) |
Emotional undereating | ||||
Crude OR (95%CI) | 1.20 (0.94,1.52) | 1.19 (0.94,1.51) | 1.08 (0.85,1.37) | 1.35 (1.06,1.72) * |
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | 1.25 (0.96,1.63) | 1.23 (0.95,1.59) | 1.07 (0.84,1.38) | 1.37 (1.06,1.78) * |
Path | Indirect Effect Estimate | BootstrappingBias Corrected 95%CI |
---|---|---|
Emotional and instrumental feeding → Emotional undereating → Reconstituted meat products a | 0.026 * | 0.005, 0.050 |
Emotional and instrumental feeding → Emotional undereating → Reconstituted meat products (≥19 g/week) b | 0.020 | −0.002, 0.040 |
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An, M.; Liu, X.; Guo, H.; Zhou, Q. The Associations between Caregivers’ Emotional and Instrumental Feeding, Children’s Emotional Eating, and Children’s Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4439. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084439
An M, Liu X, Guo H, Zhou Q. The Associations between Caregivers’ Emotional and Instrumental Feeding, Children’s Emotional Eating, and Children’s Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(8):4439. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084439
Chicago/Turabian StyleAn, Meijing, Xiyao Liu, Hao Guo, and Qianling Zhou. 2022. "The Associations between Caregivers’ Emotional and Instrumental Feeding, Children’s Emotional Eating, and Children’s Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods in China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 8: 4439. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084439