Availability, Toxicology and Medical Significance of Antimony
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Availability of Antimony
3. Exposure to Antimony
3.1. Environmental Contamination and Exposure at Industrial, Mining, and Urban Settings
3.2. Exposure to Antimony Related to Water Consumption
3.3. Exposure to Antimony Related to Food Consumption
4. Toxicity and Toxicology of Antimony
4.1. Cellular Mechanisms Associated with Antimony Entry and Processing
4.2. Physiological Mechanisms of Sb Toxicity Reduction in the Human Body
4.3. Effects on the Respiratory System
4.4. Effects on the Cardiovascular System
4.5. Effects on the Oral Cavity
4.6. Effects on the Gastrointestinal Tract
4.7. Effects on the Skin
5. Use of Antimony in Medicine
5.1. Antimonial Drugs for Leishmaniasis Treatment
5.2. Antimonial Drugs for Human African Trypanosomiasis Treatment
5.3. Antimonial Drugs for Schistosomiasis Treatment
5.4. Resistance to Antimonial Drugs
6. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Antimony Compound | Chemical Formula | Uses |
---|---|---|
Antimony trioxide | Sb2O3 | Flame retardant in plastics, textiles and rubber; catalyst for PET production |
Antimony pentoxide | Sb2O5 | Flame retardant |
Sodium antimonate | NaSbO3 | Flame retardant; decolorizing and refining agent for optical glass |
Antimony trisulfide | Sb2S3 | Photoconductors, brake linings, fireworks |
Antimony pentasulfide | Sb2S5 | Vulcanizing agent |
Antimony triacetate | Sb(CH3COOH)3 | Catalyst in the production of polyesters |
Mineral | Chemical Formula | Crystal System | Mineral Group | Color | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stibnite | Sb2O3 | Orthorhombic | Sulfides | Gray with luster | [39,40] |
Jamesonite | Pb4FeSb6S14 | Monoclinic | Sulfosalts | Gray to black | [41,42] |
Valentinite | Sb2O3 | Orthorhombic | Oxides | White to light grey to yellow | [43,44] |
Senarmonite | Sb2O3 | Cubic (Isometric) | Oxides | Colorless to grey | [45,46] |
Stibiconite | (Sb3+Sb5+)2O6(OH) | Cubic (Isometric) | Oxides | White, yellow, orange to light brown | [47,48] |
Bindheimite | Pb2Sb2O6O | Cubic (Isometric) | Oxides | Yellow to brown to greenish brown | [49,50] |
Kermesite | Sb2S2O | Triclinic | Sulfides | Red | [51,52,53] |
Tetrahedrite | Cu6(Cu4C22+)Sb4S12S | Cubic (Isometric) | Sulfosalts | Various shades of grey | [54,55] |
Location | Region, Country | Sb Water Content (μg/lt) | Sb Soil Content (mg/kg) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ouche | Massif Central, France | 200–350 | n/a | [108] |
Pernek | Malacky, Slovakia | 1–31 | 121–894 | [109] |
Dúbrava | Žilina, Slovakia | 4–9300 | 4.8–9619 | |
Medzibrod | Banská Bystrica, Slovakia | 11–1290 | 2–793 | |
Poproč | Košice, Slovakia | 5–1000 | 13–6786 | |
Čučma | Košice, Slovakia | 1–3540 | 6.2–782 | |
Su Sergiu | Sardinia, Italy | 23–1700 | 19–4400 | [110] |
Glendinning | Dumfries & Galloway, Scotland | 0.10–783 | 6.77–261 | [111] |
Endeavour Inlet | New Zealand | 14.1–30.4 | 18–243 | [112] |
Llorenç d’Hortons (industrial site) | Barcelona, Spain | 1.93–2.06 | 0.1–112 | [113] |
Losacio-Las Cogollas | Zamora, Spain | n/a | 60–230 | [114] |
Bardo | Lower Silesia, Poland | 0.14–0.76 | n/a | [118] |
Bystrzyca Górna | 0.13–123 | n/a | ||
Czarnów | 0.01–16.6 | n/a | ||
Dębowina | 0.33–437 | n/a | ||
Dziećmorowice | 0.05–151 | n/a | ||
Srebrna Góra | 0.02–170 | n/a | ||
Puqing mining area | Guizhou, China | n/a | 0.49–1431 | [106] |
Huangshi | Hubei, China | n/a | 0.62–4.65 | |
Xikuangshan | Hunan, China | n/a | 100–5045 | |
Keramos | Chios Island, Greece | 115.94–478.63 | n/a | [119] |
Pathology | Compound and Administration | Dosage | Pathogenic Factors Targeted | Application | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cancer | Trivalent antimony potassium tartrate | 4.2–322 µg/mL | small cell lung cancer cell lines | in vitro (currently under research) | [330] |
Syphilis | Antimony powder in saline solution—intravenous injections | 50–200 mg | Treponema pallidum | in vivo (historical use) | [323] |
Malaria | Various | Various | Plasmodium spp. | in vivo (historical use) | [324,325,331] |
Framboesia tropica | Antimonium tartarum—intramuscular | Various | Treponema pallidum pertenue | in vivo (historical use) | [326,332] |
Various bacterial infections | Sb(ephedtc)3 and monophenylantimony(III) compounds—microtiter plates & salt application | 21.4–125.6 µM | P. aeruginosa; E. coli; K. pneumoniae; Salmonella dublin; E. cloacae; S. aureus; E. caseofluvialis; S. sciuri; plus multiresistant clinic isolated strains | in vitro (currently under research) | [327,328] |
Aspergillosis | Monophenylantimony(III) compounds—Salt application | 27.9–65.08 µM | A. niger; A. flavus | in vitro (currently under research) | [328] |
Leishmaniasis | Sodium antimony gluconate; meglumine antimoniate—intramuscular | 10–100 mg/kg | Leishmania spp. | in vivo | [321,333,334,335] |
Trypanosomiasis | Various combinations of antimonials and other compounds | Various | Trypanosoma spp. | in vitro (experiments in murine trypanosomiasis); in vivo | [336,337,338,339] |
Schistosomiasis | Various antimonials—intravenously, intramuscular | 3.5–530 mg | Schistosoma spp. | in vivo (historical use) | [340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349] |
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Periferakis, A.; Caruntu, A.; Periferakis, A.-T.; Scheau, A.-E.; Badarau, I.A.; Caruntu, C.; Scheau, C. Availability, Toxicology and Medical Significance of Antimony. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4669. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084669
Periferakis A, Caruntu A, Periferakis A-T, Scheau A-E, Badarau IA, Caruntu C, Scheau C. Availability, Toxicology and Medical Significance of Antimony. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(8):4669. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084669
Chicago/Turabian StylePeriferakis, Argyrios, Ana Caruntu, Aristodemos-Theodoros Periferakis, Andreea-Elena Scheau, Ioana Anca Badarau, Constantin Caruntu, and Cristian Scheau. 2022. "Availability, Toxicology and Medical Significance of Antimony" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 8: 4669. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084669