Recent Advances in Bio-Based Additive Flame Retardants for Thermosetting Resins
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biomass
3. Bio-Based Compounds in the Flame Retardant Industry
3.1. Saccharide-Based Products
3.1.1. Cellulose
3.1.2. Starch and Its Derivatives
3.1.3. Chitosan
3.2. Bio-Based Aromatic Compounds
3.2.1. Lignin
3.2.2. Tannins
3.2.3. Gallic Acid
3.2.4. Ellagic Acid
3.3. DNA
3.4. Proteins
3.5. Phytic Acid
4. The Toxicity of Bio-Based Compounds
5. Bio-Based Flame Retardants for Thermosetting Resins
5.1. Bio-Based FRs for Epoxy Resin
5.2. Bio-Based FRs for Unsaturated Polyester Resin
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group of Compounds | Subgroup | Example | Molecular Formula |
---|---|---|---|
Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides | Glucose | C6H12O6 |
Polysaccharides | Starch | (C6H10O5)n | |
Cellulose | (C6H10O5)n | ||
Xylose | C5H10O5 | ||
Phenolic compounds | Lignin | Coniferyl, coumaryl, and sinapyl alcohols | C9H10O2, C10H12O3, C11H14O4 |
Oils | Triglycerides | Oleic acid | C18H34O2 |
Proteins | Amino acids | Alanine | C3H7NO2 |
Biomass | Cellulose [wt%] | Hemicelluloses [wt%] | Lignin [%] |
---|---|---|---|
White cotton | 94–96 | 1–2 | <1 |
Brown cotton | 85–88 | 2–3 | 5–7 |
Flax | 85–88 | 5–6 | 3–5 |
Softwood | 46–48 | 20–23 | 27–28 |
Hardwood | 44–46 | 25–27 | 22–25 |
Bagasse | 37–39 | 23–25 | 19–21 |
Corn stalks | 35–37 | 24–26 | 18–20 |
Corn cobs | 34–36 | 36–38 | 9–11 |
Corn stover | 35–37 | 28–30 | 18–20 |
Wheat straw | 34–36 | 28–30 | 15–17 |
Rice straw | 34–36 | 25–27 | 7–9 |
Switchgrass | 36–38 | 26–28 | 17–19 |
Waste of textile | 97–98 | 1–2 | <1 |
Cotton linter | 95–96 | 1–2 | <1 |
Used office paper | 60–62 | 4–6 | 1–2 |
Used newspaper | 38–40 | 18–20 | 20–22 |
Used cardboard | 58–60 | 14–15 | 10–12 |
Olive pomace | 23–25 | 22–24 | 32–34 |
Flame Retardant | Type of Compound | Mode of Action | Effects | The Optimum Amount of Additive | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flame retardants for epoxy resin | |||||
Core-shell graphitic carbon nitride/zinc phytate (PIPT) | Derivative of phytic acid | Forming stable, dense char layer and limiting heat transfer by labyrinth effect | Increase LOI Reduce PHRR rate and THR Prolong TTI Reduce FGI Reduce PSPR and TSP Reduce effective heat of combustion Increase residue mass Reduce tensile strength, elongation at , and impact strength | 5 phr | [75] |
Intumescent flame retardant system (APP/PER/MEL/eggshell) | Biowaste | Forming thermally stable char layer blocking mass and heat transfer between gas and condensed phases | Increase LOI Reduce PHR and THR Reduce TSR Reduce smoke density rating Increase residue mass | 40 wt% (wt% of eggshell) | [76] |
Cobalt alginate | Derivative of alginate | Forming a thin char layer and diluting combustible gases | Increase LOI Remain unchanged TTI Reduce PHRR Slightly increase THR Reduce FIGRA Reduce TSP Reduce the smoke density Increase char residue Reduce tensile strength, tensile modulus, and flexural strength are lower Improve the impact strength | 3 wt% | [77] |
Piperazine phytate | Derivative of phytic acid | Degradation of ammonium compounds resulting in NH3 release, diluting flammable gases, and promoting char formation | Increase LOI Reduce PHRR and THR Reduce PSPR and TSP Increase residue mass Reduce FIGRA Reduce tensile strength and elongation at | 15 wt% | [78] |
Fly ash (FA)/modified with HCl/modified with NaOH | Biowaste | Not mentioned | Decrease burning rate Increase LOI Insignificantly reduces flexural, tensile, and impact strength Increase compressive strength | 20 wt% | [79] |
ITA-HBP | Derivative of itaconic acid | Forming of the char layer, blocking heat and oxygen permeation. Releasing free radicals promotes pyrolysis. Releasing volatile compounds diluting flammable gases. | Increase LOI Make EP self-extinguishing Reduce PHRR and THR Shorten TTI Reduce TSR Improve impact and flexural strength, and toughness | 20 phr | [80] |
Lychee peel | Biowaste | Forming of the rich-carbon char layer, blocking fuel transport. Absorbing free radicals. | Slightly increase LOI Decrease the burning rate Increase tensile strength, compressive strength, and impact strength Decrease flexural strength | 20 wt% | [81] |
Gallic acid, Ellagic acid, Derivatives of acids (GA, EA, GAD, EAD) | Derivatives of gallic and ellagic acids | Forming of the protective layer slowing pyrolysis. | Shorten TTI Reduce PHRR and THR Reduce burning rate | 10 wt% | [41] |
Flame retardants for unsaturated polyester resin | |||||
L-histidinium dihydrogen phosphate–phosphoric acid (LHP) | Derivative of aminoacid | Forming of the char layer blocks heat transport and slows the burning rate. Probably also a heat sink effect and diluting oxygen concentration due to decomposition of propionic acid. | Makes UPR self-extinguishing Reduces PHRR and THR Reduces TSR Reduces smoke density | 30 wt% | [86] |
Phosphorylated chitosan-coated carbon microspheres (PCCCM | Derivative of chitosan | Forming of the tortuous char layer blocks heat and pyrolysis products transport. Dilution of combustible gases. | Slightly increases LOI value Increases residue mass Shortens TTI Reduces PHRR Slightly increases THR Reduces PSPR and TSP | 3 wt% | [87] |
LbL assembled diatomite based on chitosan and APP (DCHAPP) | Derivative of chitosan | Forming of compact and colloidal char layer blocking heat transport and preventing the transmission of pyrolysis compounds. | Increases LOI Increases char residue Reduces PHRR and THR Prolongs TTI Reduces SPR and TSR Slightly improves flexural and tensile strength | 25 phr (9 bilayers) | [88] |
PN-lignin | Derivative of lignin | Forming of the char layer blocks heat and gas transfer. | Decreases the burning rate Slightly improves thermal stability | 12,5 wt% | [89] |
Modified hemp fiber combined with melamine cyanurate | Biowaste | Forming of the expandable char layer blocks heat transfer and isolation from the air. | Increase LOI Decreases PHRR and THR Decreases TSR Increases residue mass | 30 wt% (hemp fiber 3 wt%) | [90] |
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Dowbysz, A.; Samsonowicz, M.; Kukfisz, B. Recent Advances in Bio-Based Additive Flame Retardants for Thermosetting Resins. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084828
Dowbysz A, Samsonowicz M, Kukfisz B. Recent Advances in Bio-Based Additive Flame Retardants for Thermosetting Resins. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(8):4828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084828
Chicago/Turabian StyleDowbysz, Adriana, Mariola Samsonowicz, and Bożena Kukfisz. 2022. "Recent Advances in Bio-Based Additive Flame Retardants for Thermosetting Resins" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 8: 4828. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084828