Changes in Air-Pollution-Related Information-Seeking Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Air Pollution in Poland
1.2. Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic
1.3. Aims
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Keyword Search Tools
2.2. Identification of Pre- and Intra-Pandemic Periods in Poland
2.3. Air-Pollution-Related Keyword Search
2.4. Weight Calculation
- First, the absolute monthly search volumes (AMSVs) for the keywords were determined using KWFinder. KWFinder approximates AMSV based on annual interest in the given keyword. Therefore, by multiplying AMSV by 12, the absolute annual search volume was calculated.
- Next, the sum of GTSV for the first year (52 weeks; 364 days) and for the whole studied period were calculated. Next, the 6-year sum of GTSV was divided by the GTSV figure for 2021.
- Subsequently, the annual absolute search volume for each keyword was multiplied by the keyword’s 6-year coefficient obtained in step 2 above. In this way, estimated 6-year absolute search volumes were calculated. These were eventually used as weights to calculate the weighted weekly GTSV.
2.5. Intra-Pandemic Google Trends Search Volume Forecasting
2.6. Obtaining and Analysis of the COVID-19 Pandemic Dataset
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
- Real-world GTSV arithmetic mean and new COVID-19 deaths in Europe (ρ = 0.44).
- Forecasted GTSV weighted mean and new COVID-19 cases in Europe (ρ = 0.41).
- Real-world GTSV arithmetic mean and new COVID-19 deaths in Poland (ρ = 0.40).
- Real-world GTSV weighted mean and new COVID-19 deaths in Europe (ρ = 0.39).
4. Discussion
4.1. Interpretation of the Results
4.2. Potential Explanations of the Results
4.3. Future Perspectives
4.4. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
Google Trends search volumes | (GTSV) |
Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average | (SARIMA) |
World Health Organisation | (WHO) |
Absolute monthly search volume | (AMSV) |
Augmented Dickey–Fuller test | (ADF) |
Akaike’s Information Criterion | (AIC) |
Mean absolute percentage error | (MAPE) |
References
- European Environment Agency: Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Europe. 2021. Available online: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/health-risks-of-air-pollution (accessed on 18 November 2021).
- World Bank Group: In the Spotlight. Air Quality in Poland, What Are the Issues and What Can Be Done? 2019. Available online: https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/426051575639438457/pdf/Air-Quality-in-Poland-What-are-the-Issues%02and-What-can-be-Done.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2021).
- Danek, T.; Zaręba, M. The Use of Public Data from Low-Cost Sensors for the Geospatial Analysis of Air Pollution from Solid Fuel Heating during the COVID-19 Pandemic Spring Period in Krakow, Poland. Sensors 2021, 21, 5208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Samek, L. Overall human mortality and morbidity due to exposure to air pollution. Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health 2016, 29, 417–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nazar, W.; Niedoszytko, M. Air Pollution in Poland: A 2022 Narrative Review with Focus on Respiratory Diseases. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khomenko, S.; Cirach, M.; Pereira-Barboza, E.; Mueller, N.; Barrera-Gómez, J.; Rojas-Rueda, D.; de Hoogh, K.; Hoek, G.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M. Premature mortality due to air pollution in European cities: A health impact assessment. Lancet Planet. Health 2021, 5, e121–e134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kowalska, M.; Skrzypek, M.; Kowalski, M.; Cyrys, J.; Ewa, N.; Czech, E. The Relationship between Daily Concentration of Fine Particulate Matter in Ambient Air and Exacerbation of Respiratory Diseases in Silesian Agglomeration, Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dabrowiecki, P.; Adamkiewicz, Ł.; Mucha, D.; Czechowski, P.O.; Soliński, M.; Chciałowski, A.; Badyda, A. Impact of Air Pollution on Lung Function among Preadolescent Children in Two Cities in Poland. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 2375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Badyda, A.; Gayer, A.; Czechowski, P.O.; Majewski, G.; Dąbrowiecki, P. Pulmonary Function and Incidence of Selected Respiratory Diseases Depending on the Exposure to Ambient PM10. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 1954. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Majewska, R.; Pac, A.; Mróz, E.; Spengler, J.; Camann, D.; Mrozek-Budzyn, D.; Sowa, A.; Jacek, R.; Wheelock, K.; Perera, F.P. Lung function growth trajectories in non-asthmatic children aged 4–9 in relation to prenatal exposure to airborne particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons—Krakow birth cohort study. Environ. Res. 2018, 166, 150–157. [Google Scholar]
- Badyda, A.J.; Grellier, J.; Dąbrowiecki, P. Ambient PM2.5 Exposure and Mortality Due to Lung Cancer and Cardiopulmonary Diseases in Polish Cities. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2017, 944, 9–17. [Google Scholar]
- Wrotek, A.; Badyda, A.; Czechowski, P.O.; Owczarek, T.; Dąbrowiecki, P.; Jackowska, T. Air Pollutants’ Concentrations Are Associated with Increased Number of RSV Hospitalizations in Polish Children. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 3224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ścibor, M.; Galbarczyk, A.; Jasienska, G. Living Well with Pollution? The Impact of the Concentration of PM2.5 on the Quality of Life of Patients with Asthma. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Nazar, W.; Plata-Nazar, K. Changes in Air Pollution-Related Behaviour Measured by Google Trends Search Volume Index in Response to Reported Air Quality in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization. Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health (accessed on 15 November 2021).
- Nazar, W.; Leszkowicz, J.; Pieńkowska, A.; Brzeziński, M.; Szlagatys-Sidorkiewicz, A.; Plata-Nazar, K. Before-and-after online community survey on knowledge and perception of COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Infect. Dis. 2020, 20, 861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Forycka, J.; Pawłowicz-Szlarska, E.; Burczyńska, A.; Cegielska, N.; Harendarz, K.; Nowicki, M. Polish medical students facing the pandemic—Assessment of resilience, well-being and burnout in the COVID-19 era. PLoS ONE 2022, 17, e0261652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Akay, A. The local and global mental health effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Econ. Hum. Biol. 2022, 45, 101095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davies, H.; Cheung, M. COVID-19 and First Responder Social Workers: An Unexpected Mental Health Storm. Soc. Work 2022, 67, 114–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Czeisler, M.É.; Marynak, K.; Clarke, K.E.N.; Salah, Z.; Shakya, I.; Thierry, J.M.; Ali, N.; McMillan, H.; Wiley, J.F.; Weaver, M.D.; et al. Delay or Avoidance of Medical Care Because of COVID-19–Related Concerns—United States, June 2020. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2022, 69, 1250–1257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bodilsen, J.; Nielsen, P.B.; Søgaard, M.; Dalager-Pedersen, M.; Speiser, L.O.Z.; Yndigegn, T.; Nielsen, H.; Larsen, T.B.; Skjøth, F. Hospital admission and mortality rates for non-covid diseases in Denmark during COVID-19 pandemic: Nationwide population based cohort study. BMJ 2021, 373, 1135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kościelecka, K.E.; Kuć, A.J.; Kubik, D.M.; Męcik-Kronenberg, T.; Ceglarz, D. Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Availability of Medical Care Among Oncological Patients. Wiad. Lek. 2021, 74, 1542–1551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andrzejczak, A.; Żarłok, E.; Osowiecka, K.; Rucińska, M. Execution of the breast cancer and cervical cancer screening programs in Poland in the first period of restrictions introduced due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Med. Ogólna Nauk. Zdrowiu 2021, 27, 428–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Filonchyk, M.; Hurynovich, V.; Yan, H. Impact of COVID-19 lockdown on air quality in the Poland, Eastern Europe. Environ. Res. 2021, 198, 110454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zaręba, M.; Danek, T. Analysis of Air Pollution Migration during COVID-19 Lockdown in Krakow, Poland. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2022, 22, 210275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marquès, M.; Domingo, J.L. Positive association between outdoor air pollution and the incidence and severity of COVID-19. A review of the recent scientific evidences. Environ. Res. 2022, 203, 111930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Semczuk-Kaczmarek, K.; Rys-Czaporowska, A.; Sierdzinski, J.; Kaczmarek, L.D.; Szymanski, F.M.; Platek, A.E. Association between air pollution and COVID-19 mortality and morbidity. Intern. Emerg. Med. 2022, 17, 467–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kowalski, P.A.; Szwagrzyk, M.; Kielpinska, J.; Konior, A.; Kusy, M. Numerical analysis of factors, pace and intensity of the corona virus (COVID-19) epidemic in Poland. Ecol. Inform. 2021, 63, 101284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Copat, C.; Cristaldi, A.; Fiore, M.; Grasso, A.; Zuccarello, P.; Signorelli, S.S.; Conti, G.O.; Ferrante, M. The role of air pollution (PM and NO 2) in COVID-19 spread and lethality: A systematic review. Environ. Res. 2020, 191, 100129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Google Trends. Available online: https://trends.google.com/trends/?geo=PL (accessed on 15 November 2020).
- KWFinder: Keyword Research and Analysis Tool. Available online: https://kwfinder.com/ (accessed on 15 November 2020).
- Spiteri, G.; Fielding, J.; Diercke, M.; Campese, C.; Enouf, V.; Gaymard, A.; Bella, A.; Sognamiglio, P.; Moros, M.J.S.; Riutort, A.N.; et al. First cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the WHO European Region, 24 January to 21 February 2020. Eurosurveillance 2020, 25, 2000178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- COVID-19 Data Explorer—Our World in Data. Available online: https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/coronavirus-data-explorer?zoomToSelection=true&time=2020-03-01..latest&facet=none&pickerSort=asc&pickerMetric=location&Metric=Confirmed+cases&Interval=7-day+rolling+average&Relative+to+Population=true&Color+by+test+positivity=false&country=USA~GBR~CAN~DEU~ITA~IND (accessed on 1 February 2022).
- Poland Population—Worldometer. 2022. Available online: https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/poland-population/ (accessed on 22 February 2022).
- Rousseau, S.; Deschacht, N. Public Awareness of Nature and the Environment during the COVID-19 Crisis. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2020, 76, 1149–1159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mangono, T.; Smittenaar, P.; Caplan, Y.; Huang, V.S.; Sutermaster, S.; Kemp, H.; Sgaier, S.K. Information-Seeking Patterns during the COVID-19 Pandemic across the United States: Longitudinal Analysis of Google Trends Data. J. Med. Internet Res. 2021, 23, e22933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raczkowska, E.; Mazurkiewicz, D.; Ambrozik-Haba, J.; Godyla-Jabłoński, M. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Poles’ Nutritional and Health Behaviour and Quality of Life—A Pilot Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Górnicka, M.; Drywień, M.E.; Zielinska, M.A.; Hamułka, J. Dietary and Lifestyle Changes during COVID-19 and the Subsequent Lockdowns among Polish Adults: A Cross-Sectional Online Survey PLifeCOVID-19 Study. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hoffmann, K.; Paczkowska, A.; Bońka, A.; Michalak, M.; Bryl, W.; Kopciuch, D.; Zaprutko, T.; Ratajczak, P.; Nowakowska, E.; Kus, K. Assessment of the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Pro-Health Behavior of Poles. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Czyż, S.H.; Starościak, W. Perceived physical activity during stay-at-home COVID-19 pandemic lockdown March–April 2020 in Polish adults. PeerJ 2022, 10, e12779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bartoszek, A.; Walkowiak, D.; Bartoszek, A.; Kardas, G. Mental Well-Being (Depression, Loneliness, Insomnia, Daily Life Fatigue) during COVID-19 Related Home-Confinement—A Study from Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jodczyk, A.M.; Kasiak, P.S.; Adamczyk, N.; Gębarowska, J.; Sikora, Z.; Gruba, G.; Mamcarz, A.; Śliż, D. PaLS Study: Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Usage among Polish University Students in the Context of Stress Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dziedzic, B.; Idzik, A.; Kobos, E.; Sienkiewicz, Z.; Kryczka, T.; Fidecki, W.; Wysokiński, M. Loneliness and mental health among the elderly in Poland during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health 2021, 21, 1976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wieczorek, T.; Kołodziejczyk, A.; Ciułkowicz, M.; Maciaszek, J.; Misiak, B.; Rymaszewska, J.; Szcześniak, D. Class of 2020 in Poland: Students’ Mental Health during the COVID-19 Outbreak in an Academic Setting. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Babicki, M.; Szewczykowska, I.; Mastalerz-Migas, A. The Mental Well-Being of Health Care Workers during the Peak of the COVID-19 Pandemic—A Nationwide Study in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheif Inspectorate for Environmental Protection Poland: Database of Air Pollution Measurements. Available online: http://powietrze.gios.gov.pl/pjp/archives (accessed on 15 November 2020).
- Yerema, C.T.; Managi, S. The multinational and heterogeneous burden of air pollution on well-being. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 318, 128530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variable | Keyword | Total | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Air Pollution | Smog | Air Quality | Air Quality Index | Air Purity | PM10 | PM2.5 | ||
Estimated number of searches in years 2016–2021 | 1,486,988 | 2,201,171 | 587,275 | 48,495 | 65,007 | 108,304 | 47,257 | 4,544,497 |
Relative weight | 31.5 | 46.6 | 12.4 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 2.3 | 1.0 | - |
Keyword | Mean GTSV Difference | Median GTSV Difference | Mean Percentage GTSV Difference | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Air pollution | −5.3 | −1.5 | −53.5 | 0.007 |
Smog | −3.3 | −0.6 | −51.0 | 0.036 |
Air quality | −0.9 | 4.0 | −5.8 | 0.081 |
Air quality index | −0.8 | 1.1 | −7.3 | 0.969 |
Air purity | −2.1 | 0.0 | −20.4 | 0.244 |
PM10 | 0.4 | −0.9 | 4.3 | 0.493 |
PM2.5 | −0.6 | 3.7 | −10.6 | 0.620 |
Arithmetic mean | −1.8 | 1.6 | −18.7 | 0.577 |
Weighted mean | −3.5 | 0.0 | −39.0 | 0.174 |
Keyword | SARIMA Hyperparameters | Mean Absolute Percentage Error [%] | Mean GTSV Difference | Median GTSV Difference | Mean GTSV Percentage Difference [%] | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Air pollution | (1,0,1) × (1,0,1)12 | 33.2 | −2.4 | −1.8 | −33.0 | 0.509 |
Smog | (1,0,1) × (1,0,1)12 | 22.6 | −0.9 | −0.2 | −19.7 | 0.907 |
Air quality | (3,1,3) × (2,1,3)12 | 6.5 | −11.5 | −14.7 | −41.3 | 0.461 |
Air quality index | (1,0,1) × (3,0,1)12 | 2.2 | −2.1 | 0.6 | −16.3 | 0.954 |
Air purity | (1,1,1) × (1,1,2)12 | 17.6 | −11.6 | −14.9 | −56.9 | 0.001 |
PM10 | (3,0,1) × (1,0,1)12 | 44.3 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 7.8 | 0.081 |
PM2.5 | (1,0,1)× (1,0,1)12 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 1.6 | 132.6 | 0.008 |
Arithmetic mean | (1,0,1) × (1,0,1)12 | 10.2 | −0.3 | 0.5 | −3.3 | 0.727 |
Weighted mean | (1,0,1) × (1,0,1)12 | 6.2 | −1.2 | −0.3 | −16.5 | 0.969 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Nazar, W.; Niedoszytko, M. Changes in Air-Pollution-Related Information-Seeking Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 5613. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095613
Nazar W, Niedoszytko M. Changes in Air-Pollution-Related Information-Seeking Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(9):5613. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095613
Chicago/Turabian StyleNazar, Wojciech, and Marek Niedoszytko. 2022. "Changes in Air-Pollution-Related Information-Seeking Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 9: 5613. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095613