Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training and Continuous Aerobic Training on Health-Fitness, Health Related Quality of Life, and Psychological Measures in College-Aged Smokers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Study Population and Sample
2.3. Assessment
2.3.1. Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQOL) Assessment
2.3.2. Hemodynamic Assessment
2.3.3. Anthropometric Assessment
2.3.4. Lung Function Assessment
2.3.5. Cardiorespiratory (CR) Endurance Assessment
2.3.6. Intervention
2.3.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Limitations and Directions for Further Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Group | Baseline | 8-Weeks | %∆ | Effect Size: Cohen’s d | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Physical State | ||||||
Raw Data (7–35) | HIIT (n = 18) | 25.89 ± 4.27 | 29.06 ± 3.81 | 10.9 | −1.791 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 24.69 ± 2.52 | 29.75 ± 3.02 | 17.0 | −1.626 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 22.86 ± 3.57 | 21.14 ± 3.55 | −8.1 | 0.425 | 0.114 | |
Transformed score (4–20) | HIIT (n = 18) | 14.83 ± 2.46 | 16.28 ± 2.32 | 8.9 | −1.324 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 13.94 ± 1.39 | 17.00 ± 1.71 | 18.0 | −1.759 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 13.14 ± 2.11 | 11.93 ± 2.13 | −10.1 | 0.498 | 0.069 | |
Transformed score (0–100) | HIIT (n = 18) | 67.61 ± 15.76 | 78.72 ± 13.65 | 14.1 | −1.571 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 62.26 ± 8.75 | 78.19 ± 15.13 | 20.3 | −0.929 | 0.001 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 57.36 ± 13.08 | 48.29 ± 14.04 | −18.7 | 0.541 | 0.051 | |
Psychological State | ||||||
Raw Data (6–30) | HIIT (n = 18) | 20.94 ± 2.84 | 24.22 ± 3.32 | 13.5 | −1.955 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 22.81 ± 1.76 | 25.44 ± 2.37 | 10.3 | −1.007 | 0.001 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 19.79 ± 3.29 | 19.29 ± 4.50 | −2.6 | 0.122 | 0.636 | |
Transformed score (4–20) | HIIT (n = 18) | 14.06 ± 1.86 | 16.28 ± 2.32 | 13.6 | −1.860 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 15.13 ± 1.26 | 17.00 ± 1.59 | 11.0 | −1.067 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 13.07 ± 2.13 | 12.86 ± 2.93 | −1.6 | 0.081 | 0.752 | |
Transformed score (0–100) | HIIT (n = 18) | 62.83 ± 11.63 | 75.89 ± 13.43 | 17.2 | −1.894 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 69.63 ± 7.83 | 81.50 ± 9.97 | 14.5 | −1.089 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 56.64 ± 13.31 | 55.43 ± 18.16 | −2.2 | 0.074 | 0.773 | |
Social Relationships | ||||||
Raw Data (3–15) | HIIT (n = 18) | 10.17 ± 2.18 | 11.83 ± 1.98 | 14.0 | −0.455 | 0.001 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 11.56 ± 1.46 | 12.25 ± 1.48 | 5.6 | −0.367 | 0.143 | |
CON (n = 14) | 10.14 ± 1.75 | 12.64 ± 2.76 | 19.7 | 0.194 | 0.453 | |
Transformed score (4–20) | HIIT (n = 18) | 13.22 ± 3.57 | 15.17 ± 4.18 | 12.9 | −0.462 | 0.059 |
CAT (n = 16) | 15.44 ± 2.03 | 16.38 ± 2.06 | 5.7 | −0.336 | 0.177 | |
CON (n = 14) | 13.43 ± 2.44 | 12.64 ± 2.76 | −6.3 | 0.189 | 0.465 | |
Transformed score (0–100) | HIIT (n = 18) | 57.61 ± 22.45 | 69.89 ± 25.92 | 16.1 | −0.462 | 0.056 |
CAT (n = 16) | 71.50 ± 12.78 | 77.38 ± 12.96 | 7.5 | −0.333 | 0.181 | |
CON (n = 14) | 58.86 ± 15.35 | 53.93 ± 17.28 | −9.1 | 0.189 | 0.467 | |
Environmental Point | ||||||
Raw Data (8–40) | HIIT (n = 18) | 25.17 ± 3.63 | 29.61 ± 4.35 | 15.0 | −1.840 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 28.13 ± 3.05 | 32.94 ± 4.22 | 14.6 | −1.202 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 26.07 ± 4.36 | 45.00 ± 14.45 | 42.1 | 0.961 | 0.003 * | |
Transformed score (4–20) | HIIT (n = 18) | 12.83 ± 1.82 | 15.06 ± 2.13 | 14.8 | −1.820 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 14.44 ± 1.55 | 16.63 ± 2.06 | 13.2 | −1.180 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 13.29 ± 2.16 | 11.29 ± 2.13 | −17.7 | 0.923 | 0.000 * | |
Transformed score (0–100) | HIIT (n = 18) | 55.33 ± 11.33 | 29.61 ± 4.35 | −86.9 | −1.852 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 65.38 ± 9.63 | 79.19 ± 12.94 | 17.4 | −1.178 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 58.14 ± 13.42 | 45.00 ± 14.45 | −29.2 | 0.926 | 0.003 * |
Variable | Group | Baseline | 8-Weeks | %∆ | Effect Size: Cohen’s d | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RHR (bpm) | HIIT (n = 18) | 66.61 ± 9.15 | 63.11 ± 5.57 | −5.5 | 0.667 | 0.009 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 70.13 ± 4.10 | 64.13 ± 5.16 | −9.4 | 1.424 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 74.14 ± 7.51 | 73.29 ± 4.39 | −1.2 | 0.089 | 0.728 | |
SBP–RBP (mmHg) | HIIT (n = 18) | 106.17 ± 12.89 | 106.22 ± 10.06 | 0.0 | −0.008 | 0.971 |
CAT (n = 16) | 112.88 ± 5.26 | 111.50 ± 7.54 | −1.2 | 0.159 | 0.514 | |
CON (n = 14) | 115.21 ± 5.18 | 115.57 ± 7.37 | 0.3 | −0.048 | 0.851 | |
DBP–RBP (mmHg) | HIIT (n = 18) | 67.61 ± 7.95 | 68.33 ± 5.63 | 1.1 | −0.147 | 0.523 |
CAT (n = 16) | 71.88 ± 4.35 | 69.25 ± 5.16 | −3.8 | 0.421 | 0.096 | |
CON (n = 14) | 69.93 ± 5.24 | 71.00 ± 4.49 | 0.1 | −0.166 | 0.521 | |
RPP (mmHg×bpm) | HIIT (n = 18) | 73.36 ± 20.78 | 66.64 ± 10.93 | −10.1 | 0.495 | 0.042 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 79.28 ± 7.35 | 71.57 ± 8.12 | −10.8 | 1.091 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 74.14 ± 7.51 | 83.15 ± 9.46 | 10.8 | 0.161 | 0.534 | |
MAP (mmHg) | HIIT (n = 18) | 80.80 ± 7.90 | 80.85 ± 6.56 | 0.1 | −0.015 | 0.949 |
CAT (n = 16) | 85.54 ± 3.79 | 77.72 ± 20.52 | −10.1 | 0.355 | 0.156 | |
CON (n = 14) | 79.20 ± 22.64 | 85.86 ± 4.82 | 7.8 | −0.268 | 0.306 |
Variable | Group | Baseline | 8-Weeks | %∆ | Effect Size: Cohen’s d | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weight (kg) | HIIT (n = 18) | 66.69 ± 7.50 | 67.90 ± 7.61 | 1.8 | −0.888 | 0.001 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 73.79 ± 12.47 | 73.48 ± 10.97 | −0.4 | 0.090 | 0.711 | |
CON (n = 14) | 73.07 ± 5.06 | 70.77 ± 6.04 | −3.2 | 0.983 | 0.002 * | |
BMI (kg/m2) | HIIT (n = 18) | 22.56 ± 2.12 | 22.98 ± 2.10 | 1.8 | −0.913 | 0.001 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 23.37 ± 3.59 | 23.39 ± 3.590 | 0.1 | −0.237 | 0.333 | |
CON (n = 14) | 24.56 ± 2.32 | 23.65 ± 2.61 | −3.7 | 1.008 | 0.000 * | |
Waist (cm) | HIIT (n = 18) | 73.81 ± 3.67 | 74.02 ± 4.96 | 0.3 | −0.077 | 0.737 |
CAT (n = 16) | 74.81 ± 8.57 | 73.48 ± 10.97 | −1.8 | −0.165 | 0.497 | |
CON (n = 14) | 82.93 ± 9.41 | 84.92 ± 10.90 | 2.3 | −0.293 | 0.265 | |
Hip (cm) | HIIT (n = 18) | 93.83 ± 5.06 | 94.34 ± 6.38 | 0.5 | −0.087 | 0.703 |
CAT (n = 16) | 102.03 ± 10.50 | 98.95 ± 11.53 | −3.1 | 0.331 | 0.183 | |
CON (n = 14) | 100.93 ± 8.19 | 101.14 ± 11.44 | 0.2 | −0.029 | 0.909 | |
WHR | HIIT (n = 18) | 0.79 ± 0.04 | 0.79 ± 0.04 | 0.0 | 0.141 | 0.540 |
CAT (n = 16) | 0.74 ± 0.09 | 0.76 ± 0.08 | 2.6 | −0.388 | 0.123 | |
CON (n = 14) | 0.82 ± 0.07 | 0.84 ± 0.10 | 2.3 | −0.249 | 0.341 | |
Sum of skinfolds (∑7) | HIIT (n = 18) | 62.06 ± 17.85 | 73.61 ± 15.95 | 15.7 | −1.233 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 74.31 ± 13.97 | 88.56 ± 17.10 | 16.1 | −2.040 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 69.07 ± 11.13 | 61.71 ± 9.36 | −11.9 | 0.840 | 0.005 * | |
%BF | HIIT (n = 18) | 8.06 ± 2.88 | 10.54 ± 3.20 | 23.5 | −1.254 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 10.03 ± 2.19 | 12.23 ± 2.58 | 18.0 | −1.537 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 8.80 ± 1.86 | 8.79 ± 2.51 | −0.1 | 0.003 | 0.991 | |
Fat mass (kg) | HIIT (n = 18) | 5.39 ± 2.11 | 7.19 ± 2.50 | 25.0 | −1.237 | 0.000 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 7.51 ± 2.62 | 9.15 ± 2.93 | 17.9 | −1.386 | 0.000 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 6.43 ± 1.53 | 6.24 ± 2.03 | −3.0 | 0.087 | 0.735 | |
Lean mass (kg) | HIIT (n = 18) | 61.28 ± 6.92 | 60.71 ± 6.74 | −0.9 | 0.339 | 0.150 |
CAT (n = 16) | 66.25 ± 10.34 | 64.34 ± 8.53 | −3.0 | 0.593 | 0.025 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 66.42 ± 4.67 | 64.52 ± 5.50 | −2.9 | 0.642 | 0.024 * |
Variable | Group | Baseline | 8-Weeks | %∆ | Effect Size: Cohen’s d | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FVC(L)–Meas | HIIT (n = 18) | 3.91 ± 0.49 | 4.36 ± 0.69 | 10.3 | −0.569 | 0.022 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 3.95 ± 0.45 | 4.26 ± 0.58 | 7.3 | −0.434 | 0.087 | |
CON (n = 14) | 3.78 ± 0.21 | 3.49 ± 0.56 | −8.3 | 0.470 | 0.084 | |
FVC(L)–Pred% | HIIT (n = 18) | 84.48 ± 6.40 | 89.57 ± 13.08 | 5.7 | −0.386 | 0.105 |
CAT (n = 16) | 81.79 ± 4.75 | 86.76 ± 11.49 | 5.7 | −0.509 | 0.049 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 80.79 ± 6.90 | 79.41 ± 9.40 | −1.4 | 0.119 | 0.644 | |
FEV(L)–Meas | HIIT (n = 18) | 3.46 ± 0.32 | 3.70 ± 1.02 | 6.5 | −0.243 | 0.295 |
CAT (n = 16) | 3.56 ± 0.28 | 3.81 ± 0.35 | 6.6 | −0.505 | 0.050 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 3.46 ± 0.10 | 3.42 ± 0.36 | −1.2 | 0.100 | 0.698 | |
FEV(L)–Pred% | HIIT (n = 18) | 87.19 ± 4.80 | 93.78 ± 9.66 | 7.0 | −0.657 | 0.010 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 86.47 ± 3.20 | 89.51 ± 8.66 | 3.4 | −0.383 | 0.127 | |
CON (n = 14) | 86.87 ± 4.92 | 85.93 ± 9.30 | −1.1 | 0.084 | 0.743 | |
FVC/FEV1 (%)–Meas | HIIT (n = 18) | 87.95 ± 5.06 | 89.34 ± 4.77 | 1.6 | −0.195 | 0.397 |
CAT (n = 16) | 90.54 ± 3.64 | 91.32 ± 4.56 | 0.9 | −0.154 | 0.527 | |
CON (n = 14) | 91.83 ± 3.04 | 87.24 ± 4.53 | −5.3 | 0.716 | 0.014 * | |
FVC/FEV1 (%)–Pred% | HIIT (n = 18) | 106.36 ± 5.60 | 108.18 ± 5.87 | 1.7 | −0.222 | 0.338 |
CAT (n = 16) | 109.24 ± 4.56 | 108.89 ± 4.04 | −0.3 | 0.066 | 0.786 | |
CON (n = 14) | 110.67 ± 3.51 | 104.84 ± 6.19 | −0.1 | 0.670 | 0.020 * | |
PEF (L/s)–Meas | HIIT (n = 18) | 8.11 ± 1.31 | 8.90 ± 1.21 | 8.9 | −0.338 | 0.151 |
CAT (n = 16) | 8.36 ± 0.61 | 9.30 ± 1.28 | 10.1 | −0.766 | 0.006 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 8.62 ± 0.58 | 7.06 ± 1.34 | −22.1 | 0.966 | 0.002 * | |
PEF (L/s)–Pred% | HIIT (n = 18) | 86.92 ± 13.51 | 92.23 ± 12.21 | 5.8 | −0.228 | 0.325 |
CAT (n = 16) | 87.79 ± 8.04 | 97.04 ± 10.72 | 9.5 | −0.697 | 0.010 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 91.89 ± 6.51 | 79.30 ± 12.79 | −15.9 | 0.742 | 0.011 * | |
FEF_25 (L/s)–Meas | HIIT (n = 18) | 6.93 ± 0.92 | 7.40 ± 0.56 | 0.1 | −0.377 | 0.112 |
CAT (n = 16) | 7.08 ± 0.27 | 7. 07 ± 1.13 | −1.1 | −0.235 | 0.965 | |
CON (n = 14) | 7.18 ± 0.29 | 6.70 ± 1.05 | −7.2 | 0.371 | 0.164 | |
FEF_25 (L/s)–Pred% | HIIT (n = 18) | 87.49 ± 10.50 | 94.28 ± 9.93 | 7.2 | −0.442 | 0.066 |
CAT (n = 16) | 88.28 ± 5.96 | 91.18 ± 13.09 | 3.18 | −0.235 | 0.337 | |
CON (n = 14) | 90.30 ± 4.56 | 84.82 ± 9.40 | −6.5 | 0.460 | 0.091 | |
FEF_50 (L/s)–Meas | HIIT (n = 18) | 4.16 ± 0.61 | 4.60 ± 0.51 | 9.6 | −0.511 | 0.037 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 4.37 ± 0.25 | 4.79 ± 0.95 | 8.8 | −0.423 | 0.095 | |
CON (n = 14) | 4.37 ± 0.33 | 4.09 ± 0.46 | −6.8 | 0.520 | 0.059 | |
FEF_50 (L/s)–Pred% | HIIT (n = 18) | 78.69 ± 10.21 | 85.22 ± 7.43 | 7.7 | −0.512 | 0.036 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 80.07 ± 5.11 | 76.63 ± 20.90 | −4.5 | 0.152 | 0.531 | |
CON (n = 14) | 84.00 ± 6.87 | 76.49 ± 7.06 | −9.8 | 0.806 | 0.007 * | |
FEF_75 (L/s)–Meas | HIIT (n = 18) | 1.63 ± 0.29 | 2.04 ± 0.50 | 20.1 | −0.628 | 0.013 * |
CAT (n = 16) | 1.80 ± 0.17 | 2.00 ± 0.65 | 10.0 | −0.315 | 0.204 | |
CON (n = 14) | 1.79 ± 0.16 | 1.65 ± 0.26 | −8.5 | 0.453 | 0.095 | |
FEF_75 (L/s)–Pred% | HIIT (n = 18) | 68.23 ± 11.61 | 77.05 ± 12.07 | 11.4 | −0.445 | 0.064 |
CAT (n = 16) | 70.83 ± 7.46 | 69.71 ± 7.68 | −1.6 | 0.155 | 0.524 | |
CON (n = 14) | 74.77 ± 7.44 | 66.74 ± 7.28 | −12.0 | 0.769 | 0.009 * |
Variable | Group | Baseline | 8-Weeks | %∆ | Effect Size: Cohen’s d | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Steps/min | HIIT (n = 18) | 28.28 ± 3.79 | 29.67 ± 1.24 | 4.7 | −0.365 | 0.123 |
CAT (n = 16) | 28.31 ± 1.58 | 29.06 ± 2.62 | 2.6 | −0.299 | 0.227 | |
CON (n = 14) | 24.64 ± 2.82 | 25.43 ± 2.90 | 3.1 | −0.202 | 0.437 | |
VO2max (mL/kg/min) | HIIT (n = 18) | 26.35 ± 3.06 | 27.47 ± 1.00 | 4.1 | −0.365 | 0.123 |
CAT (n = 16) | 26.38 ± 1.28 | 26.98 ± 2.12 | 2.2 | −0.300 | 0.226 | |
CON (n = 14) | 23.41 ± 2.28 | 24.05 ± 2.34 | 2.7 | −0.202 | 0.437 | |
HR (BPM) | HIIT (n = 18) | 75.22 ± 17.60 | 70.83 ± 10.67 | −6.2 | 0.322 | 0.171 |
CAT (n = 16) | 98.25 ± 11.77 | 86.19 ± 12.17 | −14.0 | 0.969 | 0.001 * | |
CON (n = 14) | 97.29 ± 16.06 | 102.07 ± 13.85 | 4.7 | −0.246 | 0.346 |
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Shandu, N.M.; Mathunjwa, M.L.; Shaw, B.S.; Shaw, I. Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training and Continuous Aerobic Training on Health-Fitness, Health Related Quality of Life, and Psychological Measures in College-Aged Smokers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 653. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010653
Shandu NM, Mathunjwa ML, Shaw BS, Shaw I. Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training and Continuous Aerobic Training on Health-Fitness, Health Related Quality of Life, and Psychological Measures in College-Aged Smokers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(1):653. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010653
Chicago/Turabian StyleShandu, Nduduzo Msizi, Musa Lewis Mathunjwa, Brandon Stuwart Shaw, and Ina Shaw. 2023. "Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training and Continuous Aerobic Training on Health-Fitness, Health Related Quality of Life, and Psychological Measures in College-Aged Smokers" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 1: 653. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010653