Algerian Workers’ Exposure to Mycotoxins—A Biomonitoring Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Reagents and Standard Solutions
2.2. Sample Collection
2.3. LC-MS/MS Conditions
2.4. Extraction and Cleanup
2.5. Method Validation
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Cleanup Optimization
3.2. Analytical Validation
3.3. Sample Results
3.3.1. Levels of the Mycotoxins and Their Metabolites
Mycotoxin | Algeria | Chile [24] | Ivory Coast [34] | Nigeria [30] | Portugal [13,25] | Rwanda [28] | South Africa [32] | Spain [29] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mycotoxin Prevalence (%) | DON | 0 | 55 | 21 | 0.8 | 30 | 19 | 87 | 23 |
DON-3-G | 46 | - | - | 5 | 24 | 48 | - | - | |
DOM-1 | 76 | - | 0 | - | 32 | 24 | - | 53 | |
ZEN | 91 | 1 | 37 | 0.8 | 57 | 30 | 100 | 40 | |
α-ZEL | 25 | 8 | - | - | 5 | - | 92 | 43 | |
OTA | 86 | 1 | - | 28 | 27 | 71 | 96 | 3 | |
T-2 | 93 | - | - | - | ND | - | - | - | |
HT-2 | 77 | - | - | - | ND | - | - | - | |
AFB1 | 19 | 8 | - | - | 2 | 8 | - | - | |
AFB2 | 10 | - | - | - | 0 | - | - | - | |
FB1 | 37 | - | 27 | 13.3 | - | 30 | - | - | |
Mycotoxin Average (µg/L) | DON | - | 60.70 | 10.00 | 2.00 | 0.38 | 18.80 | 4.94 | 9.07 |
DON-3-G | 13.28 | - | - | 3.50 | 0.25 | 5.88 | - | - | |
DOM-1 | 47.97 | - | - | - | 0.23 | 35.00 | - | 20.28 | |
ZEN | 28.59 | 1.10 | - | 0.30 | 1.30 | 1.58 | 0.20 | 6.70 | |
α-ZEL | 0.43 | 41.80 | - | - | 2.70 | - | 0.25 | 27.44 | |
OTA | 0.82 | 1.30 | 0.42 | 0.20 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 11.73 | |
T-2 | 8.37 | - | - | - | ND | - | - | - | |
HT-2 | 2.05 | - | - | - | ND | - | - | - | |
AFB1 | 0.82 | 0.30 | - | - | 0.003 | 0.01 | - | - | |
AFB2 | 1.17 | - | - | - | <LOQ | - | - | - | |
FB1 | 12.99 | - | 15.30 | 4.60 | 0.24 | 0.01 | - | - |
3.3.2. Co-Occurrence
3.3.3. Distribution of Mycotoxins and Their Metabolites
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mycotoxins | Calibration Range (μg/L) | Correlation Coefficient (r) | LOQ (μg/L) | LOD (μg/L) | Repeatability (RSD %) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First Level | Second Level | |||||
DON | 6.75–225 | 0.997 | 6 | 2.05 | 3.1 * | 1.1 * |
DON-3-G | 6.75–225 | 0.981 | 6 | 2.05 | 1.1 * | 0.2 * |
DOM-1 | 6.75–225 | 0.997 | 6 | 2.05 | 6.4 * | 0.9 * |
ZEN | 6.75–225 | 0.997 | 6 | 2.05 | 7.5 * | 26.8 * |
α-ZEL | 0.25–5 | 0.978 | 0.2 | 0.08 | 6.2 ** | 0.8 ** |
OTA | 0.25–5 | 0.999 | 0.2 | 0.08 | 22.3 ** | 3.1 ** |
T-2 | 0.25–5 | 0.997 | 0.2 | 0.08 | 1.9 ** | 2.8 ** |
HT-2 | 0.25–5 | 0.907 | 0.2 | 0.08 | 17.9 ** | 14.1 ** |
AFB1 | 0.25–5 | 0.997 | 0.2 | 0.08 | 43.0 ** | 33.3 ** |
AFB2 | 0.25–5 | 0.995 | 0.2 | 0.08 | 6.0 ** | 6.8 ** |
FB1 | 0.25–5 | 0.962 | 0.2 | 0.08 | 0.01 ** | 0.02 ** |
Mycotoxin | Frequency (%) | Average ± RSD (µg/L) | Min (µg/L) | Max (µg/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|
DON | 0 | ND | ND | ND |
DON-3-G | 44 (45.8) | 13.28 ± 6.5 | 6.8 | 37.80 |
DOM-1 | 73 (76.0) | 47.97 ± 18.8 | 6.9 | 189.1 |
ZEN | 86 (89.6) | 28.87 ± 20.9 | 7.6 | 126.8 |
α-ZEL | 23 (24.9) | 0.43 ± 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.0 |
OTA | 83 (86.4) | 0.82 ± 0.5 | 0.3 | 3.5 |
T-2 | 89 (92.7) | 8.37 ± 7.6 | 0.3 | 36.3 |
HT-2 | 74 (77.1) | 2.05 ± 1.9 | 0.3 | 11.0 |
AFB1 | 18 (18.8) | 0.82 ± 0.9 | 0.3 | 4.7 |
AFB2 | 10 (10.4) | 1.17 ± 1.5 | 0.3 | 5.8 |
FB1 | 35 (36.5) | 12.99 ± 17.1 | 0.5 | 96.2 |
Rural (13) | Urban (82) | p-Value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive Samples (%) | Average (µg/L) | Positive Samples (%) | Average (µg/L) | Frequency a | Concentration b | |
DON-3-G | 7 (53.8) | 11.71 | 36 (43.9) | 13.66 | 0.559 | 0.834 |
DOM-1 | 13 (100) | 88.58 | 59 (71.9) | 39.31 | 0.034 | <0.01 |
ZEN | 8 (61.5) | 20.32 | 77 (93.9) | 29.97 | 0.004 | 0.155 |
α-ZEL | 10 (76.9) | 0.38 | 13 (15.85) | 0.48 | <0.01 | 0.148 |
OTA | 13 (100) | 0.92 | 69 (84.1) | 0.82 | 0.203 | 0.793 |
T-2 | 9 (69.2) | 1.37 | 81 (98.8) | 9.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
HT-2 | 5 (38.5) | 2.06 | 67 (81.7) | 2.08 | 0.01 | 0.848 |
AFB1 | 0 | <LOQ | 18 (22.0) | 0.82 | 0.12 | - |
AFB2 | 2 (15.4) | 0.85 | 8 (9.8) | 1.25 | 0.623 | 0.533 |
FB1 | 3 (23.1) | 1.37 | 33 (40.2) | 13.67 | 0.123 | 0.067 |
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Mendes, M.I.; Cunha, S.C.; Rebai, I.; Fernandes, J.O. Algerian Workers’ Exposure to Mycotoxins—A Biomonitoring Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 6566. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20166566
Mendes MI, Cunha SC, Rebai I, Fernandes JO. Algerian Workers’ Exposure to Mycotoxins—A Biomonitoring Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(16):6566. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20166566
Chicago/Turabian StyleMendes, Marta I., Sara C. Cunha, Iméne Rebai, and José O. Fernandes. 2023. "Algerian Workers’ Exposure to Mycotoxins—A Biomonitoring Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 16: 6566. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20166566