Evaluation of Indoor Radon Activity Concentrations and Controls in Dwellings Surrounding the Gold Mine Tailings in Gauteng Province of South Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Study Area
1.2. Climate of the Area
1.3. Geology of the Area
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Instrumentation for Indoor Radon Measurements
2.2. Indoor Radon Mapping Approach and Deployment Strategy
2.3. Laboratory Analysis of Radon Detectors
- CF is the batch-specific calibration factor (kBq/m3·h/(track/mm2));
- TDi is the chip’s track density;
- TD0 the factory background;
- T is the exposure time (days);
- F is a multiplicative factor.
2.4. Data Analysis
- Z is the estimated value for the prediction point;
- Zi is the measured value of the sampling point;
- di is the distance between the sample and prediction point;
- p is a power parameter;
- n is the number of sampling points.
3. Results
3.1. Indoor Radon Activity Concentration
3.2. Seasonal Variations on Indoor Radon
3.3. Comparison of Indoor Radon Levels with Reference Levels
3.4. Correlation of Indoor Radon with Distance from the Mine Tailings
3.5. Indoor Radon Correlation with the Underlying Geology
3.6. Radon Correlation with Building Characteristics (Ventilation and Age of the Buildings)
3.7. Spatial Analysis and Indoor Radon Map of the Area
4. Discussion
4.1. Comparison of the Findings of This Study with Previous Indoor Radon Studies
4.2. Indoor Radon on Public Health
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Leuschner, A.H.; Van As, D.; Grundling, A.; Steyn, A. A survey of indoor exposure to radon in South Africa. Clean Air J. 1989, 7. [Google Scholar]
- Appleton, J.D. Radon: Sources, health risks, and hazard mapping. Ambio 2007, 36, 85–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, J.; Ford, K.L. A study on the correlation between soil radon potential and average indoor radon potential in Canadian cities. J. Environ. Radioact. 2017, 166, 152–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation; UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2000; Volume I.
- Gundersen, L.C.; Schumann, R.R.; Otton, J.K.; Dubiel, R.F.; Owen, D.E.; Dickinson, K.A. Geology of radon in the United States. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 1992, 271, 1–16. [Google Scholar]
- National Research Council. Comparative Dosimetry of Radon in Mines and Homes; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1991.
- World Health Organization. WHO Handbook on Indoor Radon: A Public Health Perspective; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2009.
- Samet, J.M. Radon and lung cancer. JNCI J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1989, 81, 745–758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lubin, J.H.; Boice, J.D., Jr.; Edling, C.; Hornung, R.W.; Howe, G.R.; Kunz, E.; Kusiak, R.A.; Morrison, H.I.; Radford, E.P.; Samet, J.M.; et al. Lung cancer in radon-exposed miners and estimation of risk from indoor exposure. JNCI J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1995, 87, 817–827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Darby, S.; Hill, D.; Doll, R. Radon: A likely carcinogen at all exposures. Ann. Oncol. 2001, 12, 1341–1351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruno, R.C. Sources of indoor radon in houses: A review. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 1983, 33, 105–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sextro, R.G. Understanding the origin of radon indoors-Building a predictive capability. Atmos. Environ. 1987, 21, 431–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Otton, J.K. The Geology of Radon; Open Report; US Department of the Interior. US Geological Survey: Washington, DC, USA, 1992; ISBN 0-16-037974-1.
- Ball, T.K.; Miles, J.C.H. Geological and geochemical factors affecting the radon concentration in homes in Cornwall and Devon, UK. Environ. Geochem. Health 1993, 15, 27–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Varley, N.R.; Flowers, A.G. The influence of geology on radon levels in SW England. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 1998, 77, 171–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tell, I.; Jönsson, G.; Bensryd, I.; Attewell, R.; Skerfving, S.; Strömberg, U. Indoor radon-daughter concentration and gamma radiation in urban and rural homes on geologically varying ground. Sci. Total Environ. 1993, 128, 191–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Strand, T.; Jensen, C.L.; Ånestad, K.; Ruden, L.; Ramberg, G.B. High radon areas in Norway. Int. Congr. Ser. 2005, 1276, 212–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, S.; Kumar, A.; Singh, B. Radon level in dwellings and its correlation with uranium and radium content in some areas of Himachal Pradesh, India. Environ. Int. 2002, 28, 97–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sundal, A.V.; Henriksen, H.; Soldal, O.; Strand, T. The influence of geological factors on indoor radon concentrations in Norway. Sci. Total Environ. 2004, 328, 41–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- National Research Council. Evaluation of Guidelines for Exposures to Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Mudd, G.M. Radon sources and impacts: A review of mining and non-mining issues. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio/Technol. 2008, 7, 325–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Font, L.; Baixeras, C.; Moreno, V. Indoor radon levels in underground workplaces of Catalonia, Spain. Radiat. Meas. 2008, 43, S467–S470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Winde, F.; de Villiers, A.B. The nature and extent of uranium contamination from tailings dams in the Witwatersrand gold mining area (South Africa). In Proceedings of the Uranium in the Aquatic Environment: Proceedings of the International Conference Uranium Mining and Hydrogeology III and the International Mine Water Association Symposium, Freiberg, Germany, 15–21 September 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Speelman, W.J.; Lindsay, R.; Newman, R.T.; de Meijer, R.J. Radon generation and transport in and around a Gold Mine Tailings Dam in South Africa. In Proceedings of the Second European IRPA Congress on Radiation Protection, Paris, France, 15–19 May 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Ongori, J.N.; Lindsay, R.; Newman, R.T.; Maleka, P.P. Determining the radon exhalation rate from a gold mine tailings dump by measuring the gamma radiation. J. Environ. Radioact. 2015, 140, 16–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moshupya, P.; Abiye, T.; Mouri, H.; Levin, M.; Strauss, M.; Strydom, R. Assessment of Radon Concentration and Impact on Human Health in a Region Dominated by Abandoned Gold Mine Tailings Dams: A Case from the West Rand Region, South Africa. Geosciences 2019, 9, 466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kamunda, C.; Mathuthu, M.; Madhuku, M. An assessment of radiological hazards from gold mine tailings in the province of Gauteng in South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moshupya, P.M.; Mohuba, S.C.; Abiye, T.A.; Korir, I.; Nhleko, S.; Mkhosi, M. In Situ Determination of Radioactivity Levels and Radiological Doses in and around the Gold Mine Tailing Dams, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Minerals 2022, 12, 1295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robb, L.J.; Charlesworth, E.G.; Drennan, G.R.; Gibson, R.L.; Tongu, E.L. Tectono-metamorphic setting and paragenetic sequence of Au-U mineralisation in the Archaean Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 1997, 44, 353–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robb, L.J.; Meyer, F.M. The Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: Geological framework and mineralization processes. Ore Geol. Rev. 1995, 10, 67–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eriksson, P.G.; Clendenin, C.W. A Review of the Transvaal Sequence, South Africa. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 1990, 10, 101–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abiye, T.A.; Mengistu, H.; Demlie, M.B. Groundwater resource in the crystalline rocks of the Johannesburg area, South Africa. J. Water Resour. Prot. 2011, 3, 199–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eriksson, P.G.; Altermann, W.W.; Hartzer, F.J. The Transvaal Supergroup and its precursors. In The Geology of South Africa; Johnson, M.R., Anhaeusser, C.R., Thomas, R.J., Eds.; Council for Geosciences: Pretoria, South Africa, 2006; pp. 237–260. [Google Scholar]
- IAEA. (International Atomic Energy Agency). Design and Conduct of Indoor Radon Surveys; IAEA Safety Reports Series, No. 98; International Atomic Energy Agency: Vienna, Austria, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Bossew, P.; Lettner, H. Investigations on indoor radon in Austria, Part 1: Seasonality of indoor radon concentration. J. Environ. Radioact. 2007, 98, 329–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Radosys. Laboratory Analysis Report: RSFV Detectors from South Africa; Radosys: Budapest, Hungary, 2023. [Google Scholar]
- Lu, G.Y.; Wong, D.W. An adaptive inverse-distance weighting spatial interpolation technique. Comput. Geosci. 2008, 34, 1044–1055. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Z.; Wang, K.; Ma, H.; Wu, Y. An adjusted inverse distance weighted spatial interpolation method. In Proceedings of the 2018 3rd International Conference on Communications, Information Management and Network Security (CIMNS 2018), Wuhan, China, 27–28 September 2018; Atlantis Press: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; pp. 128–132. [Google Scholar]
- Rahman, S.; Mati, N.; Ghauri, B.M. Seasonal indoor radon concentration in the North West Frontier Province and federally administered tribal areas—Pakistan. Radiat. Meas. 2007, 42, 1715–1722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Degerlier, M.; Çelebi, N. Indoor radon concentrations in Adana, Turkey. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2008, 131, 259–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stojanovska, Z.; Januseski, J.; Bossew, P.; Zunic, Z.S.; Tollefsen, T.; Ristova, M. Seasonal indoor radon concentration in FYR of Macedonia. Radiat. Meas. 2011, 46, 602–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kellenbenz, K.R.; Shakya, K.M. Spatial and temporal variations in indoor radon concentrations in Pennsylvania, USA from 1988 to 2018. J. Environ. Radioact. 2021, 233, 106594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Spasić, D.; Gulan, L. High Indoor Radon Case Study: Influence of Meteorological Parameters and Indication of Radon Prone Area. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rey, J.F.; Goyette, S.; Gandolla, M.; Palacios, M.; Barazza, F.; Goyette Pernot, J. Long-term impacts of weather conditions on indoor radon concentration measurements in Switzerland. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Riley, W.J.; Gadgil, A.J.; Bonnefous, Y.C.; Nazaroff, W.W. The effect of steady winds on radon-222 entry from soil into houses. Atmos. Environ. 1996, 30, 1167–1176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ICRP. (International Commission on Radiological Protection). Lung Cancer Risk from Radon and progeny and Statement on Radon; International Commission on Radiological Protection: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2010; Volume 40. [Google Scholar]
- IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources: International Basic Safety Standards: General Safety Requirements Part 3; No. GSR Part 3; IAEA: Vienna, Austria, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Appleton, J.D.; Miles, J.C.H. Radon in wales. In Urban Geology of Wales (National Museum of Wales Geological Series Vol 2); Nicol, D., Bassett, M.G., Eds.; National Museum of Wales: Cardiff, UK, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Gruber, V.; Baumann, S.; Wurm, G.; Ringer, W.; Alber, O. The new Austrian indoor radon survey (ÖNRAP 2, 2013–2019): Design, implementation, results. J. Environ. Radioact. 2021, 233, 106618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, F.; Ward, I.C. Radon entry, migration and reduction in houses with cellars. Build. Environ. 2002, 37, 1153–1165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bezuidenhout, J. Estimating indoor radon concentrations based on the uranium content of geological units in South Africa. J. Environ. Radioact. 2021, 234, 106647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lindsay, R.; Newman, R.T.; Speelman, W.J. A study of airborne radon levels in Paarl houses (South Africa) and associated source terms, using electret ion chambers and gamma-ray spectrometry. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 2008, 66, 1611–1614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kamunda, C.; Mathuthu, M.; Madhuku, M. Determination of Radon in mine dwellings of Gauteng province of South Africa using AlphaGUARD radon professional monitor. J. Environ. Toxicol. Stud. 2017, 1, 1–4. [Google Scholar]
- Le Roux, R.; Bezuidenhout, J.; Smit, H. Indoor radon measurements for the South African West coast peninsula. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2020, 191, 144–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- le Roux, R.; Bezuidenhout, J.; Smit, H.; Newman, R. The anthropogenic impact on indoor radon concentrations for Secunda, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Health Phys. 2021, 121, 111–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maheso, A.M.; Bezuidenhout, J.; Newman, R.T. Indoor Radon Levels in Homes and Schools in the Western Cape, South Africa—Results from a Schools Science Outreach Initiative and Corresponding Model Predictions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 1350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Leuschner, A.H.; Steyn, A.; De Beer, G.P.; Strydom, R.; Bain, C.A.R. Assessment of the Extent and Influence of Indoor Radon Exposure in South Africa; Atomic Energy Corporation of South Africa Ltd.: Pretoria, South Africa, 1991. [Google Scholar]
- Sethabela, C.G. Indoor Radon Measurements in Dwellings and Public Buildings within the KOSH Gold Mining Region, North West Province; North-West University: Mahikeng, South Africa, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Darby, S.; Hill, D.; Auvinen, A.; Barros-Dios, J.M.; Baysson, H.; Bochicchio, F.; Deo, H.; Falk, R.; Forastiere, F.; Hakama, M.; et al. Radon in homes and risk of lung cancer: Collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies. BMJ 2005, 330, 223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Summer Indoor Radon Measurements | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Region | Area | Statistical Summary of Radon Concentrations (Bq/m3) | |||||
No. of Measurements (No. of Dwellings) | Min | Median | Mean | Max | SD | ||
West Rand District | Krugersdorp | 59 (33) | <LLD | 21 | 24 | 67 | 14 |
Randfontein | 15 (9) | 5 | 23 | 22 | 61 | 16 | |
Westonaria | 13 (7) | 15 | 27 | 28 | 43 | 10 | |
Carletonville | 25 (13) | 5 | 37 | 36 | 69 | 17 | |
Johannesburg Metropolitan | Soweto | 41 (23) | 15 | 29 | 34 | 71 | 17 |
All Areas | 153 (85) | <LLD | 25 | 29 | 71 | 16 | |
Winter Indoor Radon Measurements | |||||||
Region | Area | Statistical Summary of Radon Concentrations (Bq/m3) | |||||
No. of measurements (No. of dwellings) | Min | Median | Mean | Max | SD | ||
West Rand and Soweto | All areas | 65 (35) | 11 | 41 | 46 | 124 | 21 |
Season | No of Measurements | Ratio of Indoor Radon Concentration for Two Rooms in the Same Dwelling | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Median | Range | ||
Summer | 61 | 2.8 | 2.1 | 1.0–12.8 |
Winter | 30 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.0–2.0 |
Distance of Measured Dwellings from the Mine Tailings Zones (km) | Activity Concentration of Indoor Radon in Measured Dwellings (Bq/m3) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No of Measurements | Min | Median | Mean | Max | SD | |
Dwellings: <0.5 km | 19 | 9 | 22 | 33 | 124 | 27 |
Dwellings: 0.5 km–2 km | 31 | 5 | 31 | 34 | 80 | 18 |
Dwellings: 2 km–3.5 km | 27 | 11 | 32 | 35 | 71 | 16 |
Dwellings: 3.5 km–5 km | 20 | 6 | 35 | 37 | 82 | 18 |
Dwellings: 5 km–6.5 km | 13 | 5 | 25 | 32 | 69 | 18 |
Dwellings: 6.5 km–8 km | 5 | 21 | 43 | 37 | 43 | 10 |
Dwellings: >8 km | 3 | 29 | 34 | 34 | 41 | 6 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Moshupya, P.M.; Mohuba, S.C.; Abiye, T.A.; Korir, I. Evaluation of Indoor Radon Activity Concentrations and Controls in Dwellings Surrounding the Gold Mine Tailings in Gauteng Province of South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 7010. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20217010
Moshupya PM, Mohuba SC, Abiye TA, Korir I. Evaluation of Indoor Radon Activity Concentrations and Controls in Dwellings Surrounding the Gold Mine Tailings in Gauteng Province of South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(21):7010. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20217010
Chicago/Turabian StyleMoshupya, Paballo M., Seeke C. Mohuba, Tamiru A. Abiye, and Ian Korir. 2023. "Evaluation of Indoor Radon Activity Concentrations and Controls in Dwellings Surrounding the Gold Mine Tailings in Gauteng Province of South Africa" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 21: 7010. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20217010