The Mental Health of Poles during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Composition
2.2. Ethical Approval
2.3. Study Design
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Analysis of the Study Population
3.2. Percentages of Respondents with Different Symptomatologies
3.3. Analysis of Sleep Disturbances
3.4. Regression Univariable Analysis for the Psychiatric Symptoms Outcome: Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and Sleep Disturbance among Poles during the COVID-19 Pandemic
3.5. Multiple Regression Analysis for the Psychiatric Symptoms Outcome: Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and Sleep Disturbances among Poles during the COVID-19 Pandemic
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Findings
4.2. The Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety and Stress
4.3. Factors Associated with Poor Mental Health Outcomes (Severe Symptoms of Anxiety, Depression, and Stress)
4.4. The Prevalence of Insomnia and Sleep Disturbances
4.5. Positive History of Health Problems
4.6. Use of Nicotine, Alcohol and Drugs
4.7. Status of Vaccination against COVID-19 and Confirmed Infection with SARS-CoV-2 Virus in the Past
5. Study Limitations and Strengths
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group size | Total | 1306 |
Female n (%) | 1016 (77.79) | |
Male n (%) | 290 (22.21) | |
Age | Total Mean ± (SD) | 34.89 ± (14.79) |
Education | Higher n (%) | 813 (62.25) |
Secondary n (%) | 461 (35.30) | |
Vocational n (%) | 25 (1.91) | |
Primary n (%) | 7 (0.54) | |
Source of income | Salary n (%) | 737 (56.43) |
Pension n (%) | 60 (4.59) | |
Supported by parents n (%) | 495 (37.90) | |
Unemployed n (%) | 14 (1.07) | |
Place of residence | Village n (%) | 276 (21.13) |
Town of <10,000 inhabitants n (%) | 199 (15.24) | |
Town of 10,000–100,000 inhabitants n (%) | 125 (9.57) | |
City of 100,000–500,000 inhabitants n (%) | 98 (7.50) | |
City of over 500,000 inhabitants n (%) | 608 (46.55) | |
Running the household alone or with the family | Alone n (%) | 301 (23.05) |
With family n (%) | 1005 (76.95) | |
Place of work during the COVID-19 pandemic | Hybrid n (%) | 211 (28.63) |
in the workplace n (%) | 377 (51.15) | |
remotely at home n (%) | 149 (20.22) | |
Health status | Excellent n (%) | 144 (11.03) |
Very good n (%) | 623 (47.70) | |
Good n (%) | 455 (34.84) | |
not very good n (%) | 75 (5.74) | |
Bad n (%) | 9 (0.69) | |
The presence of comorbidities | n (%) | 601 (46.02) |
Regular use of stimulants | Alcohol n (%) | 503 (38.54) |
Nicotine n (%) | 182 (13.95) | |
Drugs n (%) | 27 (2.07) | |
Confirmed infection with SARS-CoV-2 virus | n (%) | 340 (26.03%) |
Being vaccinated against the virus SARS-CoV-2 | n (%) | 1162 (88.97%) |
Variables | General Mean ± SD | Normal % | Mild % | Moderate % | Severe % | Extremely Severe % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Level of depression | 10.71 ± 8.46 | 49.62 | 16.77 | 20.90 | 7.66 | 5.05 |
Level of anxiety | 7.25 ± 6.53 | 56.51 | 9.80 | 21.59 | 6.43 | 5.67 |
Level of stress | 13.38 ± 7.46 | 38.74 | 39.51 | 17.23 | 3.60 | 0.92 |
Variables | General Mean ± SD | No Clinically Significant % | Subthreshold % | Moderate Severity % | Severe % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Level of sleep disturbances | 7.80 ± 5.69 | 55.26 | 31.86 | 10.59 | 2.29 |
Level of Depression | Level of Anxiety | Level of Stress | Sleep Disturbance | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Coeff. (95% CI) | p-Value | Coeff. (95% CI) | p-Value | Coeff. (95% CI) | p-Value | Coeff. (95% CI) | p-Value |
Gender: | ||||||||
Female ref. | ||||||||
Male | −0.69 [−1.80, 0.41] | 0.215 | −1.09 [−1.94, −0.24] | 0.012 | −2.01 [−2.98, −1.04] | <0.0001 | −0.48 [−1.25, 0.28] | 0.219 |
Age | −0.04 [−0.07, −0.001] | 0.01 | −0.03 [−0.06, −0.012] | 0.003 | −0.19 [−0.04, 0.007] | 0.163 | 0.02 [−0.01, 0.04] | 0.056 |
Education: | ||||||||
Primary ref. | ||||||||
Vocational | 4.51 [−2.68, 11.72] | 0.219 | 1.85 [−3.68, 7.39] | 0.511 | 1.88 [−4.47, 8.23] | 0.561 | 2.48 [−2.36, 7.33] | 0.315 |
Secondary | 2.58 [−3.73, 8.90] | 0.422 | 3.04 [−1.81, 7.90] | 0.219 | 2.89 [−2.68, 8.46] | 0.309 | 1.59 [−2.66, 5.85] | 0.462 |
Higher | 1.83 [−4.46, 8.13] | 0.568 | 1.59 [−3.25, 6.43] | 0.519 | 2.80 [−2.75, 8.36] | 0.323 | 1.44 [−2.79, 5.69] | 0.504 |
Place of work during COVID-19 pandemic: Unemployed ref. | ||||||||
Hybrid | −0.06 [−1.79, 1.67] | 0.207 | −0.68 [−1.96, 1.59] | 0.3 | 0.91 [−0.54, 2.36] | 0.221 | −0.25 [−1.42, 0.91] | 0.666 |
in the workplace | 0.07 [−1.57, 1.72] | 0.933 | 0.32, [−0.94, 1.59] | 0.616 | 0.51 [−1.24, 2.25] | 0.571 | 0.61 [−0.55, 1.77] | 0.305 |
remotely at home | −0.06 [−1.79, 1.67] | 0.945 | −0.30 [−1.64, 1.03] | 0.655 | 0.53 [−0.99, 2.06] | 0.492 | −0.25 [−1.46, 0.94] | 0.672 |
Whether you live alone or with your family: | ||||||||
With family ref. | ||||||||
Alone | 2.08 [0.99, 3.16] | <0.0001 | 1.00 [0.16, 1.84] | 0.019 | 0.53 [−0.42, 1.50] | 0.272 | 0.07 [−0.71, 0.85] | 0.857 |
Health status: | ||||||||
Excellent ref. | ||||||||
Very good | 3.71 [2.29, 5.13] | <0.0001 | 2.06 [0.95, 3.17] | <0.0001 | 3.66 [2.41, 4.92] | <0.0001 | 1.62 [0.58, 2.67] | 0.002 |
Good | 7.19 [5.72, 8.66] | <0.0001 | 4.60 [3.45, 5.75] | <0.0001 | 6.98 [5.68, 8.28] | <0.0001 | 4.45 [3.38, 5.53] | <0.0001 |
not very good | 12.89 [10.71,15.09] | <0.0001 | 9.18 [7.47, 10.89] | <0.0001 | 11.11 [9.18, 13.04] | < 0.0001 | 6.95 [5.38, 8.51] | <0.0001 |
bad | 19.33 [14.04, 24.62] | <0.0001 | 13.51 [9.38, 17.64] | <0.0001 | 15.31 [10.65, 19.98] | <0.0001 | 10.38 [6.76, 14.00] | <0.0001 |
The presence of comorbidities | 2.13 [1.22, 9.72] | <0.0001 | 1.78 [1.08, 6.43] | <0.0001 | 1.99 [1.18, 12.46] | <0.0001 | 1.88 [1.24, 6.91] | <0.0001 |
Use of alcohol | 0.04 [−0.90, 0.98] | 0.932 | 0.24 [−0.48, 0.97] | 0.506 | 0.51 [−0.32, 1.34] | 0.231 | 0.31 [−0.35, 0.96] | 0.368 |
Use of nicotine | 2.57 [1.25, 3.89] | <0.0001 | 2.34 [1.32, 3.35] | <0.0001 | 2.38 [1.22, 3.55] | <0.001 | 1.26 [0.30, 2.21] | 0.01 |
Use of drugs | 1.09 [−2.13, 4.32] | 0.507 | 0.39 [−2.10, 2.88] | 0.759 | −0.73 [−3.58, 2.11] | 0.613 | 1.79 [−0.46, 4.05] | 0.119 |
Confirmed infection with SARS-CoV-2 virus | 1.48 [0.037, 2.92] | 0.044 | 1.62 [0.51, 2.73] | 0.004 | 1.24 [−0,03, 2.51] | 0.057 | 1.52 [0.45, 2.58] | 0.005 |
Vaccination against the virus SARS-CoV-2 | −0.97 [−2.02, 0.08] | 0.071 | −0.91 [−1.73, −0.11] | 0.027 | −1.58 [−2.51, −0.65] | 0.001 | −0.47 [−1.21, 0.26] | 0.208 |
Level of Depression | Level of Anxiety | Level of Stress | Sleep Disturbances | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Coeff. (95% CI) | p-Value | Coeff. (95% CI) | p-Value | Coeff. (95% CI) | p-Value | Coeff. (95% CI) | p-Value |
Gender: | ||||||||
Female ref. | ||||||||
Male | - | - | - | - | −1.61 [−2.51, −0.70] | <0.0001 | - | - |
Age | −0.11 [−0.13, −0.07] | <0.0001 | −0.08 [−0.11, −0.06] | <0.0001 | −0.08 [−0.11, 0.05] | <0.0001 | −0.03 [−0.05, 0.003] | 0.022 |
Whether you live alone or with your family: | ||||||||
With family ref. | ||||||||
Alone | ||||||||
1.54 [0.54, 2.54] | 0.003 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Health status: | ||||||||
Excellent ref. | ||||||||
Very good | 4.01 [2.62, 5.39] | <0.0001 | 2.17 [1.08, 3.26] | <0.0001 | 3.65 [2.41, 4.88] | <0.0001 | 1.61 [0.57, 2.66] | 0.002 |
Good | 8.26 [6.81, 9.72] | <0.0001 | 5.14 [3.97, 6.30] | <0.0001 | 7.45 [6.15, 8.75] | <0.0001 | 4.46 [3.34, 5.58] | <0.0001 |
not very good | 14.35 [12.18, 16.53] | <0.0001 | 9.70 [7.96, 11.44] | <0.0001 | 11.61 [9.67, 13.55] | <0.0001 | 6.96 [5.32, 8.59] | <0.0001 |
bad | 21.62 [16.42, 26.81] | <0.0001 | 14.99 [10.93, 19.05] | <0.0001 | 17.06 [12.47, 21.65] | <0.0001 | 10.58 [6.92, 14.23] | <0.0001 |
The presence of comorbidities | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1.73 [1.07, 8.93] | 0.03 |
Use of nicotine | 1.99 [0.79, 3.20] | 0.001 | - | - | 1.59 [0.41, 2.77] | 0.009 | - | - |
Use of drugs | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2.68 [0.56, 6.59] | 0.013 |
Vaccination against the virus SARS-CoV-2 | - | - | - | - | −1.18 [−2.04, −0.33] | 0.006 | - | - |
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Hoffmann, K.; Kopciuch, D.; Bońka, A.; Michalak, M.; Bryl, W.; Kus, K.; Nowakowska, E.; Zaprutko, T.; Ratajczak, P.; Paczkowska, A. The Mental Health of Poles during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 2000. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032000
Hoffmann K, Kopciuch D, Bońka A, Michalak M, Bryl W, Kus K, Nowakowska E, Zaprutko T, Ratajczak P, Paczkowska A. The Mental Health of Poles during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(3):2000. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032000
Chicago/Turabian StyleHoffmann, Karolina, Dorota Kopciuch, Aleksandra Bońka, Michał Michalak, Wiesław Bryl, Krzysztof Kus, Elżbieta Nowakowska, Tomasz Zaprutko, Piotr Ratajczak, and Anna Paczkowska. 2023. "The Mental Health of Poles during the COVID-19 Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 3: 2000. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032000