Correction: Cipolletta et al. Risk Perception towards COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Qualitative Synthesis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4649
Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, 35122 Padova, Italy
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(4), 2978; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042978
Submission received: 24 May 2022
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Accepted: 27 May 2022
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Published: 8 February 2023
Table
In the original publication [1], there was a mistake in Table A1: Comparative appraisal of the studies, regarding the order of the authors. The correct table appears below. The authors apologize for any inconvenience caused and state that the scientific conclusions are unaffected. This correction was approved by the Academic Editor. The original publication has also been updated.
Author Contributions
The author contributions were updated in the newest version to more clearly depict the contributions made by each author to the article [1]. The modification does not affect in any way the scientific conclusions and was approved by the Academic Editor. The corrected version appears below and the original publication has also been updated.
Table A1.
Comparative appraisal of the studies.
| Authors | Country | Sample | Data Collection Methods | Risk Perception Measures | Key Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germani et al., 2020 [7] | Italy | 1045 emerging adults (30% M, 70% F) | Cross-sectional online survey carried out in March | Five-point scale answers to 3 items (Perceived Risk Scale) | High perceived risk scores were reported, and risk awareness was positively correlated with anxiety |
| Yıldırım and Güler 2021 [8] | Turkey | 3109 adults (49.98% M, 50.02% F) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in April | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 8 items (COVID-19 Perceived Risk Scale) | Risk perception presented a significant direct effect on death distress, positivity, and happiness |
| Faasse and Newby 2020 [9] | Australia | 2174 residents (503 M, 1635 F, 36 other) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in March | 1 question with a five-point scale answer; 3 questions with Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) answers; 1 question with closed-ended options | Higher perceived personal severity of COVID-19 was a predictor of involvement in protective implementations |
| Wise et al., 2020 [13] | United States | 1591 adults (55% F, 40% M, 5% other) | A combined cross-sectional and longitudinal online survey (both held in March) | VAS-type scale answers | Optimistic bias was observed among participants, and risk perception increased on later dates. Education predicted higher risk perceptions and engagement in precautionary behaviors |
| Lohiniva et al., 2020 [14] | Finland | 116 social media posts and emails from the public | Cross-sectional qualitative data collection done in February | Analysis of social media posts and emails to build a thematic analysis of risk perception | Five different risk perception domains were observed, and people showed low personal control over the situation |
| Kuang et al., 2020 [15] | India | 2044 adults (46% F, 54% M) | Cross-sectional phone call surveys (open-ended questions) were conducted in May | 1 open question about perceived personal risk of contracting COVID-19 | Low perceived risk of contracting coronavirus was found |
| Moyce et al., 2021 [16] | United States | 20 Latinos living in a rural American community | 14 semi-structured interviews with participants over the phone conducted in April | 3 open questions | Latinos are less likely to fear the virus because they tend to be more worried with having a pay cut or a job loss |
| Casanova et al., 2020 [17] | Italy | 25 patients receiving treatment, 25 patients that had completed treatment, and 25 healthy peers | A semi-structured online qualitative questionnaire held in March | 6 closed-ended questions | The majority presented high risk perceptions and feared for the consequences of being infected with COVID-19 |
| Ilesanmi and Afolabi 2020 [18] | Nigeria | 360 adults (62.5% F, 37.5% M) | Cross-sectional interviewer-administered questionnaire driven in June | 3 closed-ended questions | The sample presented poor knowledge and low risk awareness towards the new coronavirus |
| Mouchtouri et al., 2020 [19] | Greece | 1858 residents (41.2% M, 58.8% F) | Cross-sectional telephone questionnaire (closed- and open-ended questions) conducted between April and May | Four- or five-point scale type of answers | Most respondents had a sound knowledge of COVID-19, but good practices were not reported on the same level |
| Asefa et al., 2020 [20] | Ethiopia | 416 waiters (191 M, 225 F) | Cross-sectional structured face-to-face questionnaire conducted in June | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 12 items | 53.4% of participants presented high risk perception related with being older, knowledge about COVID-19, and partaking preventive behaviors |
| de Bruin and Bennett 2020 [21] | United States | 6684 adults (3226 M, 3458 F) | Extensive cross-sectional online survey carried out in March | 2 items with a 0–100% visual linear scale type of answer | Low perceived infection and fatality risks. Perceiving greater risks was linked with implementation of protective behaviors |
| Duan et al., 2020 [22] | China | 3837 adults (1985 M, 1852 F) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire held in February | Five-point scale answers to 3 items | Risk perception was the mediating factor between government intervention and public’s engagement in preventive behaviors |
| Lee et al., 2021 [23] | South Korea | 328 middle school students: 146 boys, 182 girls | Cross-sectional online survey collected from September to October | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 4 items | Risk perception was significantly related to protective behaviors as well as gender and health status |
| Rivas et al., 2021 [24] | Bolivia | 886 Bolivians: 65.1% F, 34.9% M | Cross-sectional online survey carried out during April and May | Likert-type seven-point scale answers to 4 items | COVID-19 information exposure, gender, and adoption of preventive behaviors were positively correlated with risk perception |
| Savadori and Lauriola 2020 [25] | Italy | 572 citizens (54% M, 46% F) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in March | 10 items covering risk perception with scale type of answer | Respect for social norms and risk perceptions predicted protective behaviors |
| Xie et al., 2020 [26] | China | 317 adults (48.3% F, 51.7% M) | Cross-sectional online survey conducted in May | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 7 items | Changes in safety behaviors are associated with risk perception and COVID-19 knowledge |
| Zanin et al., 2020 [27] | Italy | 8713 citizens (3490 M, 5223 F). 8282 lived in Italy and 431 abroad | Cross-sectional online questionnaire conducted in March | 1 closed-ended question with 4 options | People’s risk perception plays a key role in the adoption of safety actions, in people’s feelings, and in their daily habits |
| Park et al., 2021 [28] | United States | 260 adults (61.77% M, 38.23% F). | Cross-sectional online survey | Likert-type seven-point scale answers to 5 items | OB is negatively related to risk perception, and risk perception increases the use of COVID-19 preventive behaviors |
| Ahmad et al., 2020 [29] | China | 302 participants from 6 Chinese Universities and 2 hospitals (59.93% M, 40.07% F) | Cross-sectional online survey | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 5 items | Government’s guidelines, risk perception, and epidemic knowledge influenced engagement in protective behaviors |
| Atchison et al., 2021 [30] | United Kingdom | 2108 adults (987 M, 1094 F) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in March | Closed-ended questions regarding perceived susceptibility and severity | There was a high engagement in preventive measures correlated with government’s guidance and income |
| Tomczyk et al., 2020 [31] | Germany | 157 adults (80% F, 20% M) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in March | 2 items with 0–100% type of answer | Compliance with COVID-19 behavioral recommendations was associated with gender, age, education, and risk perception |
| McFadden et al., 2020 [32] | United States | 718 adults (330 M, 386 F) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in February | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 10 items | Risk perception score was low, and most participants supported the use of restrictive policies for infection prevention |
| Taghrir et al., 2020 [33] | Iran | 240 medical students (98 M, 142 F) | Cross-sectional online survey performed in February | Likert-type four-point scale answers to 2 items | High levels of knowledge and adoption of preventive behaviors were reported as well as moderate risk perceptions. A negative correlation between preventive behaviors and risk perception was present |
| Mansilla Domínguez et al., 2020 [34] | Spain | 16201 adults (51.5% F, 48.5% M) | Cross-sectional online survey was conducted for 5 consecutive days | 59 items divided in 4 content areas (including risk perception) and different answer types | Gender, age, direct contact with the virus, employment, and health perception were associated with risk awareness |
| Mora-Rodríguez and Melero-López 2021 [35] | Spain | 2034 citizens (52% F, 48% M) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire carried out in March | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 4 items | Greater exposure to COVID-19 news increased personal risk perception. Being older and female predicted higher risk awareness |
| Roupa et al., 2021 [36] | Cyprus | 494 Healthcare workers (HCW) (66.7% F, 33.3% M) and nurses (75.4%) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire that took place in May | Likert-type four-point scale answers to 5 items | No significant correlation was found between COVID-19 perceptions and knowledge |
| Iorfa et al., 2020 [37] | Nigeria | 1554 adults (42.7% F, 57.3% M) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in April | Likert-type seven-point scale answers to 9 items | Risk perception mediates the link between COVID-19 knowledge and adoption of preventive behaviors. Age and gender influence this adoption |
| Lanciano et al., 2020 [38] | Italy | 980 adults (544 F, 436 M) | Cross-sectional online survey conducted in April | Ten-point scale answers to 11 items | Financial and work risk perceptions were higher than the health one. Involvement in preventive measures was related with age, gender, and education |
| Ciancio et al., 2020 [39] | United States | 5414 adults | Cross-sectional online survey that was driven in March | 4 items with 0–100 scales | An overestimated mortality risk was observed; risk perception was related to age, education, sources of news, and location |
| Germani et al., 2020 [40] | Italy | 1011 emerging adults (291 M, 720 F) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in March | Five-point scale answers to 3 risk perception dimensions: general/social, self/personal, and relatives/others | Participants showed a higher risk tolerance for their relatives than for themselves |
| Ding et al., 2020 [41] | China | 1461 college students (639 M, 822 F) | Cross-sectional online survey conducted in February | Five-point scale answers to 4 items | Chinese college students expressed high risk awareness (especially females and the ones located in the Hubei area) |
| Yang et al., 2020 [42] | Canada | 3037 adolescents and young adults from Quebec (74.6% F, 25.4% M) | Cross-sectional online survey collected in April | 11-point VAS scale answers to 2 items | Factors associated with higher risk perception include higher disease knowledge, presence of a chronic disease, and partaking in precautionary behaviors |
| Kabito et al., 2020 [43] | Ethiopia | 623 residents (402 F, 221 M) | Cross-sectional face-to-face structured questionnaires conducted in April | Five-point scale answers to 5 items | Participants showed low levels of risk perceptions. Age, education, and knowledge were associated with risk awareness |
| Harapan et al., 2020 [44] | Indonesia | 1379 adults (65.7% F, 34.3% M) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire driven between March and April | 1 item with 0–100% type of answer | High risk perception was linked with age, income, being unmarried, living area, and profession. Participants showed low risk awareness |
| Dryhurst et al., 2020 [45] | Australia, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, UK, and USA | 6991 participants | Cross-sectional online survey (data were collected between March and April) | Likert-type seven-point/five-point scale answers to 6 items | Levels of concern are higher in the UK, and being male was associated with lower perceived risk |
| Jahangiry et al., 2020 [46] | Iran | 3727 adults (1933 F, 1794 M) | Cross-sectional online survey carried out between March and April | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 8 items | 56.4% of participants were implementing preventive behaviors |
| Abir et al., 2020 [47] | Bangladesh | Two samples (N1 = 322 and N2 = 683) | Two cross-sectional online surveys (one conducted in March and the other in May) | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 5 items | Low risk perception was associated with gender and education. Perceived risk scores decreased between early and late lockdown |
| Karasneh et al., 2021 [48] | Jordan | 486 pharmacists (382 F, 104 M) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire | Likert-type three-point scale answers | Risk was highly perceived among participants, and it was predicted by gender and location. Media use influenced risk awareness |
| Wang et al., 2020 [49] | China | 2058 participants (54.2% F, 45.8% M) | Cross-sectional online survey developed in March | Closed-ended questions | Most participants stated they would get vaccinated in the future. This was related with gender, being married, and high-risk perceptions |
| Karout et al., 2020 [50] | United States | 410 Latino participants (65.9% F, 34.1% M) | Cross-sectional semi-structured questionnaire/interview collected between July and August | Three-point scale answers to 9 items | Low risk perception scores and low engagement in preventive behaviors were found among respondents |
| Chou et al., 2020 [51] | China (Taiwan region) | 1954 adults (649 M, 1305 F; 640 HCW and 1314 members of the general public) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire developed in April | Five-item questionnaire with answers in scale-type | Healthcare professionals had a higher coronavirus risk perception and adopted more protective behaviors than the general public |
| Peres et al., 2020 [52] | Portugal | 3403 residents (2672 F, 731 M). HCW = 545 | Cross-sectional online questionnaire conducted in March | Likert-scale type of answers to 6 items | Healthcare workers presented higher COVID-19 risk perception scores than the general population |
| Gorini et al., 2020 [53] | Italy | 650 HCW (439 F, 211 M) from two hospitals in Lombardy | Cross-sectional online questionnaire conducted in May | Slider-scale type of answer (0–100) to 4 items | Healthcare professionals believed they were more at risk for contracting COVID-19 than their family members. Nurses showed the highest risk perception scores |
| González et al., 2021 [54] | Spain | 557 nurses from 26 different public hospitals in Madrid (87.4% F, 12.6% M) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire collected in April | Likert-type four-point scale answers to 4 items | 37.5% of nurses were afraid of becoming infected and its consequences, and 62.8% were concerned about infecting their relatives |
| Niepel et al., 2020 [55] | United States | Two samples (N1 = 1182 and N2 = 953) | Cross-sectional online survey done in March and repeated in April | 9-point scale (0–75%) | There was a low perceived fatality risk among participants, but the numbers increased in the second survey done |
| Tran and Ravaud 2020 [56] | France | 7169 participants (5616 F, 1553 M) with chronic conditions | Cross-sectional online survey collected between March and April | 1 question with yes/no type of answer | 63% of the patients felt at risk of presenting severe illness if contracting COVID-19 because of their condition |
| Heydari et al., 2021 [57] | Iran | 3213 adults (1591 M, 1620 F) | Cross-sectional online survey performed in March | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 4 items | Risk perception mediates the relationship between risk communication and preventive behaviors |
| Seale et al., 2020 [58] | Australia | 1420 adults (740 F, 680 M) | Cross-sectional online survey carried out in March | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 10 items | Low risk perception scores were informed, and adopting preventive behaviors was associated with government trust |
| Vai et al., 2020 [59] | Italy | 2223 adults (675 M, 1548 F) | Cross-sectional online survey conducted between February and March | 2 questions with scale-type of answers | Attitude to vaccinate and utility of prevention behaviors were associated to COVID-19 risk perception and media use |
| Nazione et al., 2021 [60] | United States | 698 adults (53.7% F, 45.1% M, and 0.9% other) | Cross-sectional online survey collected in March | 8 items with closed-ended questions | Information exposure was not related with COVID-19 risk perception |
| Capone et al., 2020 [61] | Italy | 1124 University students (79.6% F, 20.4% M) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire performed in March | Likert-type seven-point scale answers to 2 items | University students presenting high levels of information seeking also showed higher levels of wellbeing and risk perception |
| Huang and Yang 2020 [62] | United States | 381 adults (58% M, 42% F) | A two-wave, cross-sectional online survey design conducted in April | Likert-type five-point scale answers to 2 items | Risk perception and uncertainty promote information seeking |
| Jiang 2020 [63] | China | 472 Chinese students (227 M, 245 F) | Cross-sectional online survey collected in February | 90-item symptom checklist scale with Likert-type five-point answers | 56% of students had sufficient knowledge of COVID-19 typical symptoms, and 57% of them reported high risk perception |
| Soni et al., 2021 [64] | India | 217 Delhi adults (116 F, 101 M) | Cross-sectional online survey opened between April and May | Five-point Likert scale answers to 6 items | Having knowledge about COVID-19 is essential to change someone’s perception and attitudes towards it |
| Geldsetzer 2020 [65] | USA and the UK | 2986 adults residing in the USA and 2988 in the UK | Cross-sectional online survey collected in February | 0–100% type of answers | The general public held several misconceptions regarding COVID-19 |
| Gollust et al., 2020 [66] | United States | 1007 American adults (62.6% were white, 12% Black, 16.5% Hispanic, and 8.9% other) | Cross-sectional online survey done in April | 4 items with closed-ended questions | Perceptions of mortality disparities were found among health status and age but not race or finances |
| Ding et al., 2020 [67] | China | 1081 adults (38.85% M, 61.15% F) | Cross-sectional online survey implemented in February | Five-point scale answers to 14 items | Risk perception strongly affects the public’s mental health. |
| Krok and Zarzycka 2020 [68] | Poland | 226 HCW (58.8% F, 41.2% M) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire held between March and May | Five-point scale answers to 18 items | Risk awareness is negatively related to psychological well-being and increases coping strategies |
| Liu et al., 2020 [69] | China | 4991 adults (2514 F, 2477 M) | Cross-sectional online survey held in February | Five-point Likert scale answers to 2 items | Respondents reported low-to-medium levels of risk perception, and high risk awareness was linked to more anxiety |
| Orte et al., 2020 [70] | Spain | 806 adults (248 M, 556 F, 1 other) | Cross-sectional online survey conducted in March | Five-point Likert scale answers to 17 items | There was a positive correlation between distress and COVID-19 risk perception |
| Qian and Li 2020 [71] | China | 351 adults (162 M, 189 F) | Cross-sectional online survey collected in February | 2 closed-ended questions | Risk event involvement was positively related to COVID-19 risk perception as well as anxiety |
| Spinelli et al., 2020 [72] | Italy | 854 parents of children aged between 2 and 14 years old (797 F, 57 M) | Cross-sectional online survey conducted in April | Scale-type of answers | Parents’ perceptions of the COVID-19 situation are deeply linked with parents’ stress levels and children’s psychological disturbances |
| Li et al., 2021 [73] | China (Taiwan region) | 1970 adults (1305 F, 650 M, 15 transgender) | Cross-sectional online survey completed in April | 5 questions with scale-type of answers | High risk perceptions mediated the association between lower perceived support and higher active coping with COVID-19 |
| de Bruin et al., 2020 [74] | United States | 5517 adults (48% M, 52% F; 37% Democrats, 32% Republicans, and 31% other) | Cross-sectional online survey that was driven in March | 4 questions with VAS-scale type of answers | Democrats showed higher perceived risk scores and likelihood to engage in preventive behaviors than Republicans |
| Lachlan et al., 2021 [75] | United States | 5000 residents (2435 M, 2558 F, 25 other, and 1 did not answer) | Cross-sectional online survey developed between April and June | Event Hazard/Outrage scale (32 items) | Risk perceptions may vary across preferences for conservative or liberal bias, but there are no differences in mitigation behavior across patterns of media use |
| Siegrist et al., 2021 [76] | Switzerland | 1585 citizens from the German-speaking part (50.9% F, 49.1% M) | Cross-sectional online survey that was driven between March and April | Seven-point scale type of answers to 7 items | People with high general trust perceive less risks associated with COVID-19 but not the ones with high social trust |
| Ye and Lyu 2020 [77] | China | 11783 adults | Cross-sectional online survey | Chinese General Social Survey | Social trust is linked to a higher risk perception and a lower infection rate, and generalized trust is the opposite |
| Zajenkowski et al., 2020 [78] | Poland | 263 adults (27.8% M, 71.5% F, 0.8% other) | Cross-sectional online survey collected in April | Situational Eight Diamonds Scale (40 items) with seven-point scale answers | Grave situations (like the coronavirus pandemic) leave less room for personality traits in predicting behaviors because they overpower dispositional tendencies |
| Marinthe et al., 2020 [79] | France | Two samples (N1 = 762 and N2 = 229) | Two cross-sectional online questionnaires. The first was conducted in early March and the second in later March | Perceived risk of contamination of the French population, personal contamination, and death were measured by single items (percentage) | Conspiracy was associated with a higher perceived COVID-19 risk of death but not with other risks |
| Monzani et al., 2021 [80] | Italy | 414 adults (70.3% F, 29.7% M). | Cross-sectional online questionnaire completed by participants between March and April | 0–100 slider scale answers to 8 items | People presenting more dispositional optimism indicated elevated levels of optimistic bias |
| Puci et al., 2020 [81] | Italy | 2078 HCW (78.8% F, 21.2% M) | Cross-sectional online survey developed from May to June | Five-point scale answers to 7 items | The majority presented high risk infection perceptions (especially nurses and physicians) |
| Ferdous et al., 2020 [82] | Bangladesh | 2017 residents (59.8% M, 40.2% F) | Cross-sectional online survey conducted between March and April | Closed-ended questions to 4 items | Participants showed a high COVID-19 risk perception and high partaking in safety behaviors |
| Serwaa et al., 2020 [83] | Ghana | 350 adults (56% M, 44% F) | Cross-sectional online questionnaire collected in March | 3 closed-ended questions | Participants had a good COVID-19 knowledge and high risk awareness |
| Samadipour et al., 2020 [84] | Iran | 364 adults (154 M, 201 F, and 9 did not answer) | Cross-sectional online survey conducted between February and March | Five-point Likert scale answers to 26 items | Iranians have a moderate risk perception of COVID-19. Five factors contribute to it: cultural, political, emotional, cognitive, and social |
| Shiina et al., 2020 [85] | UK, Spain, and Japan | 4000 people from Japan, 2000 from the UK, and 2000 from Spain | Cross-sectional online survey. Data were gathered between March and April | Nine-point scale type of answers | Knowledge, anxiety, and the frequency of precautionary behaviors was higher in the UK and Spain than in Japan |
| Soiné et al., 2021 [86] | Germany | Young adults (24–26 y) that belong to different ethnic groups | Data from the CILS4COVID survey were used | 2 closed-ended questions comparing financial and health risk perceptions | Ethnic minorities show more health and financial risk perceptions than the general population |
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, S.C. and G.M.; methodology, S.C.; formal analysis, G.R.A. and S.C.; investigation, G.R.A.; resources, G.R.A.; data curation, G.R.A.; writing—original draft preparation, G.R.A. and S.C.; writing—review and editing, S.C. and G.M.; supervision, S.C. and G.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Reference
- Cipolletta, S.; Andreghetti, G.R.; Mioni, G. Risk Perception towards COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Qualitative Synthesis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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Cipolletta, S.; Andreghetti, G.R.; Mioni, G. Correction: Cipolletta et al. Risk Perception towards COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Qualitative Synthesis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4649. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 2978. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042978
AMA Style
Cipolletta S, Andreghetti GR, Mioni G. Correction: Cipolletta et al. Risk Perception towards COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Qualitative Synthesis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4649. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(4):2978. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042978
Chicago/Turabian StyleCipolletta, Sabrina, Gabriela Rios Andreghetti, and Giovanna Mioni. 2023. "Correction: Cipolletta et al. Risk Perception towards COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Qualitative Synthesis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4649" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 4: 2978. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042978
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