Discover the Desirable Landscape Structure of Urban Parks for Mitigating Urban Heat: A High Spatial Resolution Study Using a Forest City, Luoyang, China as a Lens
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Inversion of LST
2.2.2. Remote Sensed Urban Park
2.2.3. Landscape Metrics
2.2.4. Correlation between LST and Landscape Pattern
3. Results
3.1. Spatial Heterogeneity of LST in Different Urban Parks and Different Seasons
3.2. Spatial Changes in Landscape Metrics
3.3. Correlations between LST and Landscape Pattern
3.4. Relative Importance of Landscape Driving Forces
4. Discussion
4.1. Seasonal Differences of LST in Park Green Space
4.2. Interactive Effects of Seasonal Differences and Landscape Patterns on LST
4.3. Implications for Urban Landscape Management
4.4. Limitations and Suggestions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BIP | Bare&Imper parks | PLP | Plaza parks |
BP | Balance parks | PP | Pocket parks |
COP | Comprehensive parks | R2 | Regression statistics |
CP | Community parks | SLP | Super large parks |
LP | Large parks | SMP | Small parks |
LST | Land surface temperature | SP | Specific parks |
LULC | Land use/land cover | UHI | Urban heat island |
MMP | Medium parks | UP | Urban parks |
MP | Mini parks | VWP | Vegetation&Water parks |
NWP | Parks without water | WP | Parks with water |
Appendix A
Factor Type | Metric Name | Acronym | Description |
Park shape index | Index of nearly circular shape | CIRCLE | The smaller the value is, the closer the patch is to the circle; the more significant the matter is, the closer the patch is to the strip. |
Park Shape index | SHAPE | equals 1 when all patches are circular; increases with the complexity of patch shapes; independent of patch size | |
Park Area | AREA | Area of parks | |
Park Perimeter | PERIM | Circumference of the park | |
Landscape Composition | Percentage of bare land in the park area | Pb | Percentage of the bare land in the park |
Percentage of impervious surface area in the park area | Pi | Percentage of impervious surface area in the park | |
Percentage of vegetation in the park area | Pv | Percentage of all kinds of vegetation area in the park | |
Percentage of water bodies in the park area | Pw | Percentage of the water body area in the park | |
Area of impervious surface in the park | Ci | Size of impervious surface area in parks | |
Area of bare land in the park | Cb | Area of bare land in parks | |
Area of vegetation in the park | Cv | The total area of all vegetation in parks | |
Area of water body in the park | Cw | Area of water bodies in parks | |
Landscape Configuration | Aggregation index | AI | Account for the maximum possible number of like adjacencies given any landscape composition |
Shannon’s evenness index | SHEI | Diversity measure, which considers the only evenness of patch sizes, not the number of patches | |
Simpson’s patch diversity | SHDI | Diversity measure, which equals minus the sum of the proportional abundance of each patch type multiplied by the ln of that proportion | |
Shannon’s Diversity Index | SIDI | Diversity measure, which equals 1 minus the sum of the squared proportional abundance of each patch type | |
Patch Cohesion Index | COHESION | The measure of the physical connectedness of the focal land cover class | |
Interspersion & Juxtaposition Index | IJI | The measure of evenness of patch adjacencies equals 100 for even and approaches 0 for uneven adjacencies. | |
Perimeter–area fractal dimension | PAFRAC | Patch shape complexity measure, which approaches 1 for shapes with simple perimeters and 2 for complex shapes | |
Mean Perimeter-Area Ratio | PARA_MN | Patch shape complexity measures the mean value of the patch perimeter area ratio. | |
Mean Fractal Dimension Index | FRAC_MN | Average patch shape complexity measures approach 1 for simple shapes and 2 for complex shapes; it reflects shape complexity across various spatial scales (patch sizes). | |
Mean shape index | SHAPE_MN | A patch-level shape index averaged over all patches in the landscape. | |
Mean fractal dimension | AREA_MN | Size of the patches | |
Landscape shape index | LSI | Landscape shape index, landscape shape index of the landscape in the spatial unit | |
Patch density | PD | The number of patches per park, the larger the patch density value is, the smaller the patch size is, and the higher the fragmentation degree is. | |
Number of patches | NP | Total number of patches of landscape type |
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Season | Park Green Space (°C) | The Temperature Difference between Green Space and Urban Area (°C) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maximum | Minimum | Median | Mean | Standard Deviation | Maximum | Minimum | Median | Mean | Standard Deviation | |
Winter | 1.78 | −3.90 | −0.94 | −0.97 | 1.10 | 2.84 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.89 | 0.66 |
Spring | 30.32 | 22.16 | 26.68 | 26.64 | 1.58 | 4.66 | 0.02 | 0.15 | 1.21 | 1.03 |
Summer | 38.60 | 30.85 | 35.39 | 35.16 | 1.52 | 4.52 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 1.15 | 1.01 |
Autumn | 38.93 | 28.99 | 34.09 | 33.92 | 1.64 | 5.13 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 1.22 | 1.12 |
Winter LST (°C) | Spring LST (°C) | Summer LST (°C) | Autumn LST (°C) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Landscape Types | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Standard Deviation | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Standard Deviation | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Standard Deviation | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Standard Deviation |
Water | −4.97 | 2.91 | −0.39 | 28.98 | 19.31 | 31.19 | 25.71 | 2.25 | 28.98 | 39.95 | 33.74 | 1.97 | 26.57 | 39.46 | 33.05 | 2.34 |
Vegetation | −4.31 | 3.01 | −0.24 | 29.69 | 20.75 | 32.16 | 26.50 | 1.51 | 29.69 | 40.07 | 34.80 | 1.60 | 28.21 | 39.71 | 34.02 | 1.59 |
Imperative | −4.86 | 3.12 | 0.39 | 30.63 | 22.77 | 32.14 | 27.63 | 1.47 | 30.63 | 40.58 | 34.49 | 1.71 | 30.83 | 39.18 | 34.88 | 1.31 |
Bare land | −5.04 | 3.04 | −0.21 | 30.21 | 21.47 | 31.68 | 27.07 | 1.39 | 30.21 | 40.58 | 35.15 | 1.61 | 28.28 | 39.62 | 34.50 | 1.50 |
Park Type | Views on the Transformation of Park Landscape Pattern | Pattern Diagram |
---|---|---|
All parks | Increase the amount of vegetation in the park, its area and proportion, and its density, creating low-maintenance rain gardens or sunken green areas. Increase the area of the park’s water features and plant floating and water-holding plants to enhance the purification function of water bodies and the surrounding environment. Reduce the area and proportion of the park’s impervious surfaces and bare land; strengthen vegetation maintenance on bare land and sparsely vegetated areas; and replace impervious surfaces with permeable paving or ecological paving. Increase the diversity of landscape types and species. | |
BP | Within the limited planting space, plant community structure and species types are enriched, and trees and shrubs are added to the lawn space to increase the number of species. The arrangement of vegetation patches in the park’s interior will be clustered as much as possible, and the average area of landscape patches will be increased. In contrast, the connectivity of landscape patches will be reduced. To maximize the size and simplify the park’s shape within a fixed block layout. | |
PLP | Focus on spatial coordination and balance, improving the road structure, and using permeable concrete and permeable tiles, other permeable paving in the plaza and road parts to ensure that the site runoff is organized to collect and infiltrate downward. Incorporate small plots around the park into the park, increasing the park perimeter and area and enhancing the complexity of the park’s shape from the morphological features. Various native trees and shrubs are added to the large lawn and bare land areas around the square to enrich the type of plant community structure and landscape richness while increasing the aesthetic value of the vegetation area. | |
CP | Focus on the collocation of vegetation communities, improve the richness of plant communities, and increase the variety and collocation of plants in the limited greening area. Integrating the scattered landscape patches allows vegetation planting areas and impervious surface areas to be concentrated to enhance the aggregation of park patches and increase the average size of landscape patches. Improve the park road network, install environmental protection trails, use grass tiles and porous concrete to replace traditional trail materials, and use trail outreach to enrich the park shape and increase the park perimeter. | |
NWP | Pay attention to improving impervious surfaces, such as upgrading pedestrian walkways to permeable materials or materials with greater ecological benefits, or by upgrading traditional parking lots to ecological parking lots by installing percolation ponds and grass swales. Gathering infrastructure management facilities, buildings, and large plazas to reduce the density of patches and increase the average area of patches. Increasing the size of the park. |
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Share and Cite
Zhang, K.; Yun, G.; Song, P.; Wang, K.; Li, A.; Du, C.; Jia, X.; Feng, Y.; Wu, M.; Qu, K.; et al. Discover the Desirable Landscape Structure of Urban Parks for Mitigating Urban Heat: A High Spatial Resolution Study Using a Forest City, Luoyang, China as a Lens. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 3155. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043155
Zhang K, Yun G, Song P, Wang K, Li A, Du C, Jia X, Feng Y, Wu M, Qu K, et al. Discover the Desirable Landscape Structure of Urban Parks for Mitigating Urban Heat: A High Spatial Resolution Study Using a Forest City, Luoyang, China as a Lens. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(4):3155. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043155
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Kaihua, Guoliang Yun, Peihao Song, Kun Wang, Ang Li, Chenyu Du, Xiaoli Jia, Yuan Feng, Meng Wu, Kexin Qu, and et al. 2023. "Discover the Desirable Landscape Structure of Urban Parks for Mitigating Urban Heat: A High Spatial Resolution Study Using a Forest City, Luoyang, China as a Lens" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 4: 3155. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043155