Association between Smoking and Periodontal Disease in South Korean Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Study Population
2.3. Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Community Periodontal Index (CPI) | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | ||||||||||||||
Total | No | Yes | p-Value | Total | No | Yes | p-Value | ||||||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | ||||
Total (N = 9178) | 4161 | 45.3 | 1119 | 26.9 | 3042 | 73.1 | 5017 | 54.7 | 1874 | 37.4 | 3143 | 62.6 | |||
Smoking Behavior | <0.0001 | 0.0130 | |||||||||||||
Non-smoker | 1054 | 25.3 | 376 | 35.7 | 678 | 64.3 | 4391 | 87.5 | 1668 | 38.0 | 2723 | 62.0 | |||
Ex-smoker | 1623 | 39.0 | 419 | 25.8 | 1204 | 74.2 | 344 | 6.9 | 123 | 35.8 | 221 | 64.2 | |||
Current smoker | 1484 | 35.7 | 324 | 21.8 | 1160 | 78.2 | 282 | 5.6 | 83 | 29.4 | 199 | 70.6 | |||
Age | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
20–29 | 645 | 15.5 | 276 | 42.8 | 369 | 57.2 | 688 | 13.7 | 361 | 52.5 | 327 | 47.5 | |||
30–39 | 800 | 19.2 | 250 | 31.3 | 550 | 68.8 | 1007 | 20.1 | 453 | 45.0 | 554 | 55.0 | |||
40–49 | 936 | 22.5 | 238 | 25.4 | 698 | 74.6 | 1215 | 24.2 | 447 | 36.8 | 768 | 63.2 | |||
50–59 | 810 | 19.5 | 175 | 21.6 | 635 | 78.4 | 1044 | 20.8 | 319 | 30.6 | 725 | 69.4 | |||
60–69 | 585 | 14.1 | 114 | 19.5 | 471 | 80.5 | 718 | 14.3 | 202 | 28.1 | 516 | 71.9 | |||
≥70 | 385 | 9.3 | 66 | 17.1 | 319 | 82.9 | 345 | 6.9 | 92 | 26.7 | 253 | 73.3 | |||
Marital status | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
Married | 2916 | 70.1 | 683 | 23.4 | 2233 | 76.6 | 3507 | 69.9 | 1234 | 35.2 | 2273 | 64.8 | |||
Divorced | 146 | 3.5 | 30 | 20.5 | 116 | 79.5 | 302 | 6.0 | 80 | 26.5 | 222 | 73.5 | |||
Single | 1099 | 26.4 | 406 | 36.9 | 693 | 63.1 | 1208 | 24.1 | 560 | 46.4 | 648 | 53.6 | |||
Educational level | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
Middle school | 673 | 16.2 | 85 | 12.6 | 588 | 87.4 | 1057 | 21.1 | 250 | 23.7 | 807 | 76.3 | |||
High school | 1498 | 36.0 | 416 | 27.8 | 1082 | 72.2 | 1767 | 35.2 | 652 | 36.9 | 1115 | 63.1 | |||
College | 1990 | 47.8 | 618 | 31.1 | 1372 | 68.9 | 2193 | 43.7 | 972 | 44.3 | 1221 | 55.7 | |||
Household income | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
Low | 477 | 11.5 | 93 | 19.5 | 384 | 80.5 | 632 | 12.6 | 179 | 28.3 | 453 | 71.7 | |||
Mid-low | 939 | 22.6 | 230 | 24.5 | 709 | 75.5 | 1239 | 24.7 | 449 | 36.2 | 790 | 63.8 | |||
Mid-high | 1280 | 30.8 | 345 | 27.0 | 935 | 73.0 | 1526 | 30.4 | 592 | 38.8 | 934 | 61.2 | |||
High | 1465 | 35.2 | 451 | 30.8 | 1014 | 69.2 | 1620 | 32.3 | 654 | 40.4 | 966 | 59.6 | |||
Region | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
Metropolitan | 1973 | 47.4 | 533 | 27.0 | 1440 | 73.0 | 2437 | 48.6 | 927 | 38.0 | 1510 | 62.0 | |||
Urban | 1556 | 37.4 | 479 | 30.8 | 1077 | 69.2 | 1891 | 37.7 | 798 | 42.2 | 1093 | 57.8 | |||
Rural | 632 | 15.2 | 107 | 16.9 | 525 | 83.1 | 689 | 13.7 | 149 | 21.6 | 540 | 78.4 | |||
Perceived stress level | 0.2388 | 0.1054 | |||||||||||||
Low | 636 | 15.3 | 150 | 23.6 | 486 | 76.4 | 663 | 13.2 | 234 | 35.3 | 429 | 64.7 | |||
Mid-low | 2433 | 58.5 | 667 | 27.4 | 1766 | 72.6 | 2858 | 57.0 | 1059 | 37.1 | 1799 | 62.9 | |||
Mid-high | 934 | 22.4 | 259 | 27.7 | 675 | 72.3 | 1214 | 24.2 | 485 | 40.0 | 729 | 60.0 | |||
High | 158 | 3.8 | 43 | 27.2 | 115 | 72.8 | 282 | 5.6 | 96 | 34.0 | 186 | 66.0 | |||
Occupational categories | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
White | 1433 | 34.4 | 463 | 32.3 | 970 | 67.7 | 1419 | 28.3 | 633 | 44.6 | 786 | 55.4 | |||
Pink | 495 | 11.9 | 128 | 25.9 | 367 | 74.1 | 846 | 16.9 | 284 | 33.6 | 562 | 66.4 | |||
Blue | 1309 | 31.5 | 229 | 17.5 | 1080 | 82.5 | 657 | 13.1 | 174 | 26.5 | 483 | 73.5 | |||
Inoccupation | 924 | 22.2 | 299 | 32.4 | 625 | 67.6 | 2095 | 41.8 | 783 | 37.4 | 1312 | 62.6 | |||
Current drinking status | <0.0001 | 0.7788 | |||||||||||||
Never | 1019 | 24.5 | 274 | 26.9 | 745 | 73.1 | 2457 | 49.0 | 914 | 37.2 | 1543 | 62.8 | |||
Monthly | 1640 | 39.4 | 515 | 31.4 | 1125 | 68.6 | 1847 | 36.8 | 700 | 37.9 | 1147 | 62.1 | |||
Weekly | 1502 | 36.1 | 330 | 22.0 | 1172 | 78.0 | 713 | 14.2 | 260 | 36.5 | 453 | 63.5 | |||
Physical activity | <0.0001 | 0.0002 | |||||||||||||
Adequate | 2077 | 49.9 | 614 | 29.6 | 1463 | 70.4 | 2210 | 44.1 | 888 | 40.2 | 1322 | 59.8 | |||
Inadequate | 2084 | 50.1 | 505 | 24.2 | 1579 | 75.8 | 2807 | 55.9 | 986 | 35.1 | 1821 | 64.9 | |||
Teeth Brushing Frequency | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
≤1 | 464 | 11.2 | 102 | 22.0 | 362 | 78.0 | 164 | 3.3 | 43 | 26.2 | 121 | 73.8 | |||
2 | 1694 | 40.7 | 399 | 23.6 | 1295 | 76.4 | 1779 | 35.5 | 619 | 34.8 | 1160 | 65.2 | |||
≥3 | 2003 | 48.1 | 618 | 30.9 | 1385 | 69.1 | 3074 | 61.3 | 1212 | 39.4 | 1862 | 60.6 | |||
Dental checkup status | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
No | 2616 | 62.9 | 609 | 23.3 | 2007 | 76.7 | 3016 | 60.1 | 1004 | 33.3 | 2012 | 77.7 | |||
Yes | 1545 | 37.1 | 510 | 33.0 | 1035 | 67.0 | 2001 | 39.9 | 870 | 24.0 | 1131 | 76.0 |
Variables | Community Periodontal Index (CPI) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | ||||
OR | 95% CIs | OR | 95% CIs | ||
Smoking Behavior | |||||
Non-smoker | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Ex-smoker | 1.20 | (0.95–1.50) | 1.19 | (0.89–1.60) | |
Current smoker | 1.78 * | (1.43–2.23) | 1.44 * | (1.04–1.99) | |
Age | |||||
20–29 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
30–39 | 1.41 | (0.99–2.00) | 1.18 | (0.91–1.54) | |
40–49 | 1.77 * | (1.24–2.51) | 1.63 * | (1.24–2.15) | |
50–59 | 1.83 * | (1.24–2.69) | 1.93 * | (1.44–2.57) | |
60–69 | 2.36 * | (1.53–3.64) | 1.79 * | (1.27–2.52) | |
≥70 | 2.87 * | (1.70–4.83) | 1.88 * | (1.20–2.96) | |
Marital status | |||||
Married | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Divorced | 0.77 | (0.51–1.17) | 1.36 | (0.97–1.92) | |
Single | 0.86 | (0.64–1.14) | 0.79 * | (0.63–0.98) | |
Educational level | |||||
Middle school | 1.63 * | (1.15–2.23) | 1.59 * | (1.18–2.14) | |
High school | 1.10 | (0.89–1.35) | 1.10 | (0.92–1.31) | |
College | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Household income | |||||
Low | 1.47 * | (1.01–2.15) | 1.03 | (0.78–1.37) | |
Mid-low | 1.15 | (0.90–1.46) | 0.99 | (0.82–1.21) | |
Mid-high | 1.05 | (0.86–1.28) | 0.93 | (0.78–1.12) | |
High | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Region | |||||
Metropolitan | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Urban | 0.77 | (0.59–1.02) | 0.73 | (0.57–0.92) | |
Rural | 1.39 | (0.91–2.10) | 1.78 * | (1.19–2.67) | |
Perceived stress level | |||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Mid-low | 0.89 | (0.69–1.14) | 1.02 | (0.83–1.26) | |
Mid-high | 0.93 | (0.68–1.27) | 0.98 | (0.77–1.25) | |
High | 0.94 | (0.59–1.50) | 1.25 | (0.881.77) | |
Occupational categories | |||||
White | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Pink | 1.13 | (0.85–1.52) | 1.17 | (0.92–1.48) | |
Blue | 1.48 * | (1.17–1.89) | 1.06 | (0.80–1.41) | |
Inoccupation | 0.72 * | (0.57–0.91) | 1.00 | (0.83–1.20) | |
Current drinking status | |||||
Never | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Monthly | 0.92 | (0.74–1.14) | 1.24 * | (1.07–1.43) | |
Weekly | 1.21 | (0.95–1.55) | 1.17 | (0.95–1.45) | |
Physical activity | |||||
Adequate | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Inadequate | 1.03 | (0.87–1.22) | 1.04 | (0.90–1.21) | |
Teeth Brushing Frequency | |||||
≤1 | 1.17 | (0.87–1.57) | 1.57 * | (1.03–2.39) | |
2 | 1.21 * | (1.02–1.43) | 1.02 | (0.88–1.17) | |
≥3 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Dental checkup status | |||||
No | 1.62 * | (1.36–1.93) | 1.60 * | (1.39–1.84) | |
Yes | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Variables | Community Periodontal Index (CPI) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | |||||||||
Non | Ex-Smoker | Current Smoker | Non | Ex-Smoker | Current Smoker | |||||
OR | OR | 95% CIs | OR | 95% CIs | OR | OR | 95% CIs | OR | 95% CIs | |
Age | ||||||||||
20–29 | 1.00 | 1.10 | (0.63–1.92) | 1.82 * | (1.16–2.86) | 1.00 | 0.83 | (0.45–1.55) | 0.87 | (0.41–1.83) |
30–39 | 1.00 | 1.40 | (0.85–2.31) | 1.78 * | (1.16–2.73) | 1.00 | 1.23 | (0.76–2.00) | 2.73 * | (1.45–5.17) |
40–49 | 1.00 | 1.31 | (0.84–2.04) | 2.21 * | (1.37–3.29) | 1.00 | 1.34 | (0.74–2.42) | 1.37 | (0.72–2.61) |
50–59 | 1.00 | 0.88 | (0.49–1.57) | 1.34 | (0.72–2.48) | 1.00 | 1.88 | (0.72–4.92) | 1.62 | (0.64–4.10) |
60–69 | 1.00 | 1.38 | (0.75–2.54) | 2.57 * | (1.10–6.03) | 1.00 | 0.98 | (0.32–1.71) | 1.76 | (0.36–8.70) |
≥70 | 1.00 | 1.59 | (0.68–3.71) | 2.71 | (0.68–10.71) | 1.00 | 3.56 | (0.45–28.27) | - | - |
Marital status | ||||||||||
Married | 1.00 | 1.26 | (0.96–1.65) | 1.91 * | (1.44–2.53) | 1.00 | 1.18 | (0.81–1.72) | 1.51 | (0.81–1.72) |
Divorced | 1.00 | 0.07 * | (0.01–0.89) | 0.06 | (0.00–1.32) | 1.00 | 0.90 | (0.34–2.35) | 4.44 * | (1.49–13.27) |
Single | 1.00 | 1.06 | (0.65–1.72) | 1.70 * | (1.18–2.43) | 1.00 | 1.14 | (0.70–1.86) | 1.07 | (0.61–1.87) |
Educational level | ||||||||||
Middle school | 1.00 | 1.70 | (0.87–3.30) | 3.15 * | (1.37–7.21) | 1.00 | 1.12 | (0.43–2.90) | 11.40 * | (2.93–44.45) |
High school | 1.00 | 1.21 | (0.83–1.77) | 1.67 * | (1.14–2.44) | 1.00 | 1.14 | (0.68–1.93) | 1.25 | (0.77–2.03) |
College | 1.00 | 1.14 | (0.85–1.52) | 1.76 * | (1.34–2.32) | 1.00 | 1.19 | (0.80–1.77) | 1.13 | (0.66–1.93) |
Household income | ||||||||||
Low | 1.00 | 0.78 | (0.37–1.67) | 1.95 | (0.84–4.55) | 1.00 | 1.28 | (0.44–3.72) | 2.73 | (0.95–7.87) |
Mid-low | 1.00 | 1.38 * | (1.47–4.45) | 2.56 * | (1.47–4.47) | 1.00 | 1.45 | (0.83–2.54) | 1.61 | (0.85–3.05) |
Mid-high | 1.00 | 1.17 | (0.78–1.74) | 1.82 * | (1.22–2.71) | 1.00 | 1.16 | (0.72–1.88) | 1.27 | (0.72–2.27) |
High | 1.00 | 1.19 | (0.85–1.68) | 1.51 * | (1.09–2.11) | 1.00 | 1.04 | (0.61–1.77) | 1.14 | (0.60–2.17) |
Region | ||||||||||
Metropolitan | 1.00 | 1.39 * | (1.00–1.95) | 2.16 * | (1.57–2.95) | 1.00 | 1.19 | (0.80–1.77) | 0.95 | (0.59–1.55) |
Urban | 1.00 | 1.22 | (0.88–1.70) | 1.75 * | (1.24–2.47) | 1.00 | 1.18 | (0.76–1.86) | 2.24 * | (1.32–3.80) |
Rural | 1.00 | 0.43 | (0.19–1.00) | 0.74 | (0.35–1.59) | 1.00 | 1.19 | (0.32–4.40) | 1.48 | (0.67–3.29) |
Perceived stress level | ||||||||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.41 | (0.82–2.42) | 4.02 * | (1.96–8.27) | 1.00 | 1.52 | (0.59–3.91) | 1.96 | (0.63–6.12) |
Mid-low | 1.00 | 1.16 | (0.87–1.54) | 1.72 * | (1.29–2.31) | 1.00 | 1.17 | (0.78–1.76) | 1.48 | (0.93–2.36) |
Mid-high | 1.00 | 1.28 | (0.79–2.06) | 1.87 * | (1.18–2.96) | 1.00 | 1.18 | (0.64–2.19) | 1.25 | (0.70–2.23) |
High | 1.00 | 0.55 | (0.13–2.37) | 0.75 | (0.23–2.43) | 1.00 | 0.93 | (0.40–2.16) | 1.29 | (0.51–3.27) |
Occupational categories | ||||||||||
White | 1.00 | 1.19 | (0.86–1.63) | 1.68 * | (1.21–2.33) | 1.00 | 1.21 | (0.76–1.93) | 1.23 | (0.64–2.38) |
Pink | 1.00 | 0.72 | (0.33–1.54) | 1.29 | (0.71–2.36) | 1.00 | 0.95 | (0.46–1.97) | 1.57 | (0.79–3.12) |
Blue | 1.00 | 1.08 | (0.71–1.65) | 1.80 * | (1.16–2.80) | 1.00 | 0.65 | (0.23–1.82) | 2.92 * | (1.07–1.82) |
Inoccupation | 1.00 | 1.57 | (0.99–2.48) | 2.10 * | (1.28–3.43) | 1.00 | 1.44 | (0.91–2.28) | 1.26 | (0.75–2.28) |
Current drinking status | ||||||||||
Never | 1.00 | 1.48 | (0.98–2.23) | 1.90 * | (1.23–2.94) | 1.00 | 1.22 | (0.74–2.01) | 1.84 * | (1.01–3.38) |
Monthly | 1.00 | 1.27 | (0.92–1.76) | 1.88 * | (1.37–2.57) | 1.00 | 1.32 | (0.87–1.99) | 1.12 | (0.67–1.89) |
Weekly | 1.00 | 0.87 | (0.56–1.36) | 1.45 | (0.95–2.21) | 1.00 | 1.09 | (0.59–2.11) | 1.59 | (0.95–2.66) |
Physical activity | ||||||||||
Adequate | 1.00 | 1.12 | (0.83–1.50) | 1.83 * | (1.35–2.50) | 1.00 | 0.97 | (0.66–1.43) | 1.11 | (0.68–1.81) |
Inadequate | 1.00 | 1.32 | (0.96–1.82) | 1.77 * | (1.30–2.42) | 1.00 | 1.43 | (0.96–2.21) | 1.88 * | (1.26–2.79) |
Teeth Brushing Frequency | ||||||||||
≤1 | 1.00 | 1.12 | (0.52–2.39) | 1.32 | (0.62–2.84) | 1.00 | 4.59 | (0.64–32.98) | 3.18 | (0.59–17.18) |
2 | 1.00 | 1.52 * | (1.04–2.22) | 1.41 * | (1.48–3.05) | 1.00 | 1.26 | (0.83–1.92) | 1.21 | (0.71–2.05) |
≥3 | 1.00 | 1.05 | (0.77–1.42) | 1.70 * | (1.26–2.29) | 1.00 | 1.16 | (0.81–1.65) | 1.65 * | (1.08–2.51) |
Dental checkup status | ||||||||||
No | 1.00 | 1.06 | (0.79–1.43) | 1.73 * | (1.29–2.33) | 1.00 | 1.05 | (0.74–1.48) | 1.95 * | (1.29–2.95) |
Yes | 1.00 | 1.39 * | (1.01–1.91) | 1.90 * | (1.40–2.59) | 1.00 | 1.57 * | (1.02–2.42) | 0.82 | (0.48–1.38) |
Variables | Community Periodontal Index (CPI) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | ||||
OR | 95% CIs | OR | 95% CIs | ||
Pack-Years | |||||
Non-smoker | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Pack Years < 5 | 1.11 | (0.87–1.42) | 1.16 | (0.90–1.50) | |
5 ≤ Pack Years < 10 | 1.75 * | (1.34–2.27) | 1.71 | (0.94–3.13) | |
10 ≤ Pack Years < 15 | 1.47 * | (1.10–2.27) | 1.47 | (0.72–3.00) | |
15 ≤ Pack Years < 20 | 1.80 * | (1.27–2.56) | 1.96 | (0.62–6.18) | |
20 ≤ Pack Years | 1.84 * | (1.38–2.47) | 2.69 | (0.90–8.05) | |
Smoking Cessation Status | |||||
Non-smoker | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Ex-smoker (5 yr. > Cessation) | 1.42 * | (1.04–1.96) | 1.11 * | (1.71–1.74) | |
Ex-smoker (5 yr. ≤ Cessation < 10 yr.) | 1.69 * | (1.16–2.47) | 1.07 | (0.61–1.87) | |
Ex-smoker (10 yr. ≤ Cessation) | 0.93 | (0.71–1.21) | 1.32 | (0.81–2.14) |
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Sim, K.-Y.; Jang, Y.S.; Jang, Y.S.; Nerobkova, N.; Park, E.-C. Association between Smoking and Periodontal Disease in South Korean Adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 4423. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054423
Sim K-Y, Jang YS, Jang YS, Nerobkova N, Park E-C. Association between Smoking and Periodontal Disease in South Korean Adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(5):4423. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054423
Chicago/Turabian StyleSim, Ka-Yun, Yun Seo Jang, Ye Seul Jang, Nataliya Nerobkova, and Eun-Cheol Park. 2023. "Association between Smoking and Periodontal Disease in South Korean Adults" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 5: 4423. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054423