Experience of Ethnic Discrimination, Anxiety, Perceived Risk of COVID-19, and Social Support among Polish and International Students during the Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Procedure
2.2. Statistical Analysis
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Ethnic Discrimination
2.3.2. Anxiety
2.3.3. COVID-19 Risk Perception
2.3.4. Perceived Social Support
2.3.5. Sociodemographic Variables
3. Results
3.1. Participants
3.2. Discrimination Experiences
3.3. Prevalence of Anxiety
3.4. Comparison of Polish and International Students for Study Variables
3.5. Hierarchical Regression Analyses
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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All (n = 586) | Polish Students (n = 481) | International Students (n = 105) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | n | % | |
Gender | ||||||
Female | 374 | 70.0 | 346 | 72.2 | 63 | 60.0 |
Male | 160 | 30.0 | 133 | 27.8 | 42 | 40.0 |
Age | ||||||
17–19 | 125 | 23.4 | 111 | 23.2 | 22 | 21.0 |
20–22 | 271 | 50.7 | 242 | 50.5 | 57 | 54.3 |
23–25 | 101 | 18.9 | 93 | 19.4 | 17 | 16.2 |
26 and more | 37 | 6.9 | 33 | 6.9 | 9 | 8.5 |
Subject of study | ||||||
Social Sciences | 100 | 17.2 | 92 | 19.1 | 8 | 7.6 |
Humanities | 148 | 24.7 | 125 | 26.0 | 23 | 21.9 |
Economics | 103 | 17.6 | 68 | 14.1 | 35 | 28.3 |
Artistic Sciences | 22 | 3.8 | 21 | 4.4 | 1 | 1.0 |
Medical Sciences | 76 | 12.8 | 68 | 14.1 | 8 | 7.6 |
Technical Studies | 60 | 10.2 | 32 | 6.7 | 28 | 26.7 |
Other | 77 | 13.7 | 75 | 15.6 | 2 | 1.9 |
Year of study | ||||||
1 | 237 | 40.4 | 219 | 45.5 | 18 | 17.1 |
2 | 126 | 21.5 | 101 | 21.0 | 25 | 23.8 |
3 | 93 | 15.9 | 65 | 13.5 | 28 | 26.7 |
4 | 76 | 13.0 | 59 | 12.3 | 17 | 16.2 |
5 | 54 | 9.2 | 37 | 7.7 | 17 | 16.2 |
Work | ||||||
Does not work | 380 | 64.8 | 320 | 66.5 | 60 | 57.1 |
Part-time work | 79 | 13.5 | 58 | 12.1 | 21 | 20.0 |
Full-time work | 62 | 10.6 | 49 | 10.2 | 13 | 12.4 |
Looking for a job | 65 | 11.1 | 54 | 11.2 | 11 | 10.5 |
Polish Students (n = 481) | International Students (n = 105) | Chi-Square-Value | Sommer’s d-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | |||
1. How often have you been treated unfairly by teachers and professors because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.25 | 0.68 | 1.48 | 0.75 | 17.49 ** | 0.13 ** |
2. How often have you been treated unfairly by your employers, bosses and supervisors because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.27 | 0.70 | 1.58 | 0.77 | 17.43 ** | 0.15 ** |
3. How often have you been treated unfairly by your co-workers, fellow students and colleagues because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.37 | 0.84 | 1.59 | 0.88 | 10.83 ** | 0.10 ** |
4. How often have you been treated unfairly by people in service jobs (by store clerks, waiters, bartenders, bank tellers and others) because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.26 | 0.62 | 1.58 | 0.71 | 22.29 *** | 0.13 ** |
5. How often have you been treated unfairly by strangers because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.26 | 0.66 | 1.63 | 0.73 | 35.63 *** | 0.18 *** |
6. How often have you been treated unfairly by people in helping jobs (by doctors, nurses, psychiatrists, case workers, dentists, school counsellors, therapists, social workers and others) because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.28 | 0.74 | 1.30 | 0.74 | 2.21 | 0.02 |
7. How often have you been treated unfairly by neighbours because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.16 | 0.62 | 1.32 | 0.67 | 11.94 * | 0.15 * |
8. How often have you been treated unfairly by institutions (schools, universities, law firms, the police, the courts, the Department of Social Services, the Unemployment Office and others) because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.28 | 0.70 | 1.60 | 0.81 | 15.72 ** | 0.10 * |
9. How often have you been treated unfairly by people that you thought were your friends because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.29 | 0.75 | 1.28 | 0.76 | 4.01 | −0.02 |
10. How often have you been accused or suspected of doing something wrong (such as stealing, cheating, not doing your share of the work or breaking the law) because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.14 | 0.52 | 1.31 | 0.60 | 9.84 | 0.12 * |
11. How often have people misunderstood your intentions and motives because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.23 | 0.64 | 1.42 | 0.67 | 15.25 ** | 0.13 ** |
12. How often did you want tell someone that they treat you unfairly because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity, but chose to say nothing? | 1.15 | 0.55 | 1.53 | 0.65 | 41.46 *** | 0.29 *** |
13. How often have you been really angered by some discrimination based on your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.17 | 0.58 | 1.53 | 0.68 | 36.87 *** | 0.25 *** |
14. How often have you been forced to take drastic steps (such as filing a grievance, filing a lawsuit, quitting your job, moving away and other actions) so as to cope with discrimination based on your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.10 | 0.50 | 1.23 | 0.53 | 18.65 ** | 0.17 ** |
15. How often have you been verbally abused because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.09 | 0.42 | 1.25 | 0.48 | 16.12 ** | 0.17 ** |
16. How often have you gotten into an argument or a fight about something racist that was done to you or another member of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.15 | 0.56 | 1.15 | 0.54 | 4.14 | 0.05 |
17. How often have you been made fun of. picked on, pushed, shoved, hit, or threatened with harm because of your home origin/accent/ethnicity? | 1.12 | 0.50 | 1.27 | 0.55 | 16.44 ** | 0.17 * |
18. How different would your life be now if you HAD NOT BEEN treated in a racist and unfair way? | 1.37 | 1.01 | 1.78 | 1.07 | 45.30 *** | 0.20 *** |
Variables | Polish Students (n = 481) | International Students (n = 105) | F | (Partial) η2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | |||
GAD-7 | 9.07 | 5.878 | 7.52 | 5.20 | 6.23 ** | 0.01 |
GEDS | 21.93 | 7.92 | 25.83 | 10.54 | 18.40 *** | 0.03 |
COVID-19 Risk | 3.77 | 1.09 | 4.30 | 1.36 | 18.48 *** | 0.03 |
MSPSS | 59.93 | 16.44 | 61.76 | 16.70 | 1.07 | 0.00 |
Variables | Polish Students (n = 481) | International Students (n = 105) | U p-Value | η2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | |||
1. How worried are you personally about the following issues at present? - Coronavirus/COVID-19 | 3.76 | 1.698 | 4.00 | 1.840 | 23,200.000 | 0.01 |
2. How likely do you think it is that you will be directly and personally affected by the following in the next 6 months? - Catching the coronavirus/COVID-19? | 3.71 | 2.009 | 3.75 | 2.023 | 24,955.500 | 0.00 |
3. How likely do you think it is that your friends and family in the country you are currently living in will be directly affected by the following in the next 6 months? - Catching the coronavirus/COVID-19? | 4.55 | 1.852 | 4.56 | 1.860 | 25,232.500 | 0.01 |
4. The coronavirus/COVID-19 will NOT affect very many people in the country I’m currently living in? R | 2.15 | 1.170 | 3.80 | 1.274 | 9,308.000 *** | 0.22 |
5. I will probably get sick with the coronavirus/COVID-19? | 3.19 | 1.335 | 2.93 | 1.368 | 22,459.500 | 0.01 |
6. Getting sick with the coronavirus/COVID-19 can be serious? | 3.71 | 1.228 | 3.97 | 1.164 | 22,167.500 * | 0.01 |
Predictors | Polish Students (n = 481) | International Students (n = 105) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
b | SE b | β | t | b | SE b | β | t | ||
Step 1 | Constant | 8.33 | 1.284 | 0.09 | 6.49 *** | −0.27 | 3.94 | −0.07 | |
Gender 1 | 1.22 | 0.32 | −0.09 | 2.00 * | 1.47 | 1.02 | 0.13 | 1.44 | |
Age | −0.64 | 1.284 | −2.00 * | 0.25 | 0.16 | 0.15 | 1.55 | ||
Step 2 | Constant | 1.69 | 1.615 | 1.05 | −3.75 | 4.01 | −0.94 | ||
Gender 1 | 1.11 | 0.58 | 0.09 | 1.92 | 1.13 | 0.97 | 0.11 | 1.16 | |
Age | −0.72 | 0.31 | −0.10 | −2.33 * | 0.13 | 0.16 | 0.08 | 0.85 | |
COVID-19 risk | 0.85 | 0.24 | 0.16 | 3.56 ** | 0.69 | 0.36 | 0.18 | 1.95 * | |
GEDS | 0.17 | 0.03 | 0.23 | 5.32 *** | 0.13 | 0.05 | 0.28 | 2.92 ** | |
Step 3 | Constant | 9.45 | 1.74 | 5.43 *** | 8.63 | 4.65 | 1.85 | ||
Gender 1 | 1.69 | 0.54 | 0.13 | 3.12 ** | 1.63 | 0.90 | 0.15 | 1.79 | |
Age | −0.62 | 0.29 | −0.09 | −2.15 * | −0.05 | 0.15 | −0.03 | −0.32 | |
COVID-19 risk | 0.89 | 0.22 | 0.17 | 4.07 *** | 0.64 | 0.33 | 0.17 | 1.96 * | |
GEDS | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.15 | 3.69 *** | 0.09 | 005 | 0.18 | 2.05 * | |
MSPSS | −0.13 | 0.02 | −0.37 | −8.78 *** | −0.13 | 0.03 | −0.41 | −4.37 *** | |
R2 = 0.22, Adjusted R2 = 0.21 *** | R2 = 0.29, Adjusted R2= 0.26 *** |
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Bokszczanin, A.; Gladysh, O.; Bronowicka, A.; Palace, M. Experience of Ethnic Discrimination, Anxiety, Perceived Risk of COVID-19, and Social Support among Polish and International Students during the Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 5236. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20075236
Bokszczanin A, Gladysh O, Bronowicka A, Palace M. Experience of Ethnic Discrimination, Anxiety, Perceived Risk of COVID-19, and Social Support among Polish and International Students during the Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(7):5236. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20075236
Chicago/Turabian StyleBokszczanin, Anna, Olga Gladysh, Anna Bronowicka, and Marek Palace. 2023. "Experience of Ethnic Discrimination, Anxiety, Perceived Risk of COVID-19, and Social Support among Polish and International Students during the Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 7: 5236. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20075236