Medical Household Waste as a Potential Environmental Hazard: An Ecological and Epidemiological Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Epidemiological Approach
2.3. Ecological Approach
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Practices of Disposal of Unused, Unwanted, or Expired Medications
3.2. Main Drugs Found in Water Bodies in Mexico City and Metropolitan Area
4. Discussion
Class of Drugs | Active Substance | Maximum Concentration (ng/L) | CEC (ng/L) | log Kow |
---|---|---|---|---|
Anti-inflammatories | Naproxen | 7010 | 827,999 | 3.1 |
Hormones | Androsterone | 3020 | -- | 3.0 |
Antibiotics | Erythromycin | 769 | -- | 3.0 |
Antifungal | Triclosan | 988 | -- | 4.7 |
Hypoglycemics | Metformin | 32,100 | 64,000,000 | -2.6 |
Antiepileptics | Carbamazepine | 678.3 | 346,496 | 2.2 |
Beta blockers | Metoprolol | 87.2 | 15,390 | 1.7 |
Lipid-lowering | Clofibric acid | 5856 | -- | 2.5 |
Antidepressants | Diazepam | 2.61 | 16,219 | 2.7 |
Antihistamines | Acetaminophen | 18,500 | 24,000,000 | 0.3 |
Others | Teofiline | 10,400 | 290,000,000 | 0.4 |
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Class of Drugs | Active Substance | Environmental Compartments | Location | Concentration | Author, Year. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antibiotics | Ciprofloxacine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 315–373 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] |
Claritromicine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 39.8–567 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Eritromicine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 200–769 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Lincomicine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 33.5–550 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Ofloxacine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 51–107 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Oxitetracicline | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 31.7 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Penicilic V | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | <LOQ | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Penicilin G | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | <LOQ | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Penicilin G | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 249–280 ng/L | Pérez-Coyotl I., et al. (2019) [16] | |
Penicilin V | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 11.49–14.34 ng/L | Pérez-Coyotl I., et al. (2019) [16] | |
Sulfadiazine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 62.9–100 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Sulfametoxazole | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 279–641 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Triclosan | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, México City | <LOQ | Hernández-Quiroz, et al. (2019) [32] | |
Trimethoprim | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 220–601 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Antidrepressants | Amitriptyline | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 0.693–0.942 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] |
Amitriptyline | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 1.3 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Diazepam | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 2.16–2.61 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Meprobamate | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | <LOQ | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Antiepileptics | Carbamazepine | Wastewater | México City | 37.4–43.7 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] |
Carbamazepine | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 125–162 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
Carbamazepine | Soil | Xochimilco, México City | 17.2–23.6 ng/g | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Carbamazepine | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Agricole Zone, México City | 40.8–678.3 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Carbamazepine | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Turistic Zone, México City | 29.2–54.5 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Carbamazepine | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Urban Zone, México City | 20.0–78.3 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Antifungal | Clorophene | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Inffluent 0.23–4.60 ng/L Efluent 0.95–1.38 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] |
Clorophene | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Inffluent 0.07–0.21 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Clorophene | Wastewater | Iztapalapa, México City | Inffluent 0.14–5.04 ng/L Efluent 0.25–1.34 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Clorophene | Wastewater | Iztapalapa, México City | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | ||
Triclosan | Groundwater | Gustavo A. Madero, México City | 1–345 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Triclosan | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 801–988 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
Triclosan | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Inffluent 2.50–9.34 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Triclosan | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Efluent 0.32–2.63 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Triclosan | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Inffluent 0.91–1.59 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Triclosan | Wastewater | Iztapalapa, México City | Efluent 0.08–7.33 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Triclosan | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 531–383 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Triclosan | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 16–19 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Triclosan | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, México City | 26.41–71.93 ng/μL | Díaz-Torres, et al. (2013) [28] | |
Triclosan | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 197–287 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Triclosan | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, México City | <LOD | Hernández-Quiroz, et al.(2019) [32] | |
Analgesic | Acetominophene | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 6940–18,500 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] |
Acetaminophen | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 2.66 µg/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Acetaminophen | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 1124–9156 ng/L | Pérez-Coyotl I., et al. (2018) [16] | |
Diclofenac | Groundwater | Gustavo A. Madero, México City | 1 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Diclofenac | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 2.327–3.043 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [15] | |
NSADs | Diclofenac | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 0.59 µg/L | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] |
Diclofenac | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 28–32 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Diclofenac | Soil | Xochimilco, México City | <LOQ | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Diclofenac | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Agricole Zone, México City | 2161.5 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Diclofenac | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Turistic Zone, México City | 419.5 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Diclofenac | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Urban Zone, México City | 586.5 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Ibuprophene | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Inffluent 0.41–2.81 ng/L Efluent 0.02–0.16 ng/L | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Ibuprophene | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Inffluent 0.23–0.87 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Ibuprophene | Wastewater | Iztapalapa, México City | Inffluent 0.38–28.9 ng/L Efluent 0.06–0.34 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Ibuprophene | Wastewater | Iztapalapa, México City | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | ||
Ibuprophene | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 1620–5410 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Ibuprophene | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 404–2140 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Ibuprophene | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 561–884 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
Ibuprophene | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 0.62 µg/L | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Ibuprophene | Soil | Xochimilco, México City | 144.0–407.9 ng/g | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Ibuprophene | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, México City | 0.5–13.9 μg/L | Hernández-Quiroz, et al. 2019) [32] | |
Ibuprophene | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Agricole Zone, México City | 4943.6 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Ibuprophene | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Turistic Zone, México City | 2179.5 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Ibuprophene | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Urban Zone, México City | 2803.2 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Ketoprophene | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 170–266 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
Ketoprophene | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 21–42 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Ketoprophene | Soil | Xochimilco, México City | 182.3 ng/g | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Ketoprophene | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Agricole Zone, México City | 4179.1 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Ketoprophene | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Turistic Zone, México City | 466.0 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Ketoprophene | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Urban Zone, México City | 619.3 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Naproxen | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Inffluent 54.36–3.45 ng/L Effluent 0.41 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Naproxen | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | Inffluent 2.85–20.34 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Naproxen | Wastewater | Iztapalapa, México City | Inffluent 3.47–51.13 ng/L Effluent 0.20–0.76 ng/L | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | |
Naproxen | Wastewater | Iztapalapa, México City | Peña-Alvarez A., et al. (2015) [29] | ||
Naproxen | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 2090–7010 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Naproxen | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 16.633–18.466 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
Naproxen | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 1.79 µg/L | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Naproxen | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 8.5 ng/L | ||
Naproxen | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 52–186 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Naproxen | Soil | Xochimilco, México City | 113.4 ng/g | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Naproxen | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Agricole Zone, México City | <LOD (50 ng/L) | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Naproxen | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Turistic Zone, México City | <LOD (50 ng/L) | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Naproxen | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Urban Zone, México City | <LOD (50 ng/L) | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Salicylic acid | Groundwater | Gustavo A. Madero, México City | 1–464 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Salicylic acid | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 23.223–28.478 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
Salicylic acid | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 29–309 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Salicylic acid | Soil | Xochimilco, México City | 249.1 ng/g | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Salicylic acid | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Agricole Zone, México City | 943.5 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Salicylic acid | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Turistic Zone, México City | 841.0 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Salicylic acid | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Urban Zone, México City | 339.9 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Beta blockers | Atenolol | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 38.2–69.3 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] |
Atenolol | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | <LOQ | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Deshidronifedipine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | <LOQ | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Metroprolol | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 25.9–87.2 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Metroprolol | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | <LOQ | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Valsartan | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 36.1–85.6 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Hormones | 17α-etinilestradiol | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 34–41 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] |
17α-etinilestradiol | Wastewater | Gustavo A. Madero, México City | 4–93 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
17β-estradiol | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 44.8 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
17β-estradiol | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 0.08 µg/L | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Androstenedione | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 145–371 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Androsterone | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 1980–3020 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
B-estradiol | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 13–14 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
B-estradiol | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, México City | <LOD | Hernández-Quiroz, et al.(2019) [32] | |
Estradiol | Wastewater | Gustavo A. Madero, México City | 4-93 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2013) [14] | |
Estradiol | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, México City | 0.24–1.72 ng/μL | Díaz-Torres, et al. (2013) [28] | |
Estrone | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 22–25 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
Estrone | Wastewater | Gustavo A. Madero, México City | 4-93 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2013) [13] | |
Estrone | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, México City | 1.02–10.38 ng/μL | Díaz-Torres, et al. (2013) [28] | |
Ibuprophene | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 15–45 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Estrone | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 35–65.4 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Mestranol | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 947 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Progesterone | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 26–47.4 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Testosterone | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 24.9–79.3 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
17α-etinilestradiol | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | <LOD (8 ng/L) | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2013) [13] | |
Estradiol | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 12–27 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2013) [13] | |
Estrona | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 14–54 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2013) [13] | |
Hyperglycemic | Glibenclamide | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | |
Glibenclamide | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 353–3449 ng/L | Pérez-Coyotl I., et al. (2019) [16] | |
Metformin | Hospital effluent | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | Pérez- Alvarez, et al. (2018) [33] | ||
Metformin | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 378–11,694 ng/L | Pérez-Coyotl I., et al. (2019) [16] | |
Glibenclamide | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 23.6–22.8 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Metformin | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 13,400–32,100 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Lypid lowering | Clofibric acid | Soil | Xochimilco, México City | 118.6–203.2 ng/g | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] |
Clofibric acid | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Agricole Zone, México City | 1495.9 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Clofibric acid | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Turistic Zone, México City | 2737.8–5856 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Clofibric acid | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Urban Zone, México City | 402.2 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Gemfibrozil | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 276–605 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Gemfibrozil | Dam | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 9–10 ng/L | Felix-Cañedo, et al. (2013) [15] | |
Gemfibrozil | Soil | Xochimilco, México City | 37.2 ng/g | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Gemfibrozil | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Agricole Zone, México City | <LOQ (50 ng/L) | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Gemfibrozil | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Turistic Zone, México City | 500.1 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Gemfibrozil | Lacustrine zone | Xochimilco, Urban Zone, México City | 707.9 ng/L | Campos, S. et al. (2017) [31] | |
Gemfibrozil | Wastewater | Coyoacán, México City | 2.103–3.696 ng/L | Melo-Guimarães, et al. (2013) [27] | |
Atorvastatine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 9.1–9.93 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Albuterol | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 6.29–11.5 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Amphetamine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 16.4–46.1 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Androsterone | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 122–189 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Other | Cafeine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 4920–6430 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] |
Enalapril | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 22–42.5 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Teofiline | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 3900–10,400 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Theobromine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 2870–8360 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] | |
Difenhidramine | Wastewater | Metropolitan area-Estado de México | 28.2 ng/L | Estrada-Arriaga, et al. (2016) [30] |
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Variable | Total n = 719 | Female n = 422 | Male n = 297 | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age, years | 32.9 ± 12.2 | 33.6 ± 11.9 | 31.9 ± 12.7 | 0.090 |
Occupation | ||||
Full-time employee | 46.6 (335) | 41.7 (176) | 53.5 (159) | <0.001 *** |
Student | 26.4 (190) | 23 (97) | 31.3 (93) | |
Half-time employee | 10.4 (75) | 41.7 (176) | 53.5 (159) | |
Housewives/home staying | 9.3 (67) | 15.6 (66) | 0.3 (1) | |
Others | 2.8 (20) | 3.3 (14) | 2 (6) | |
Retired | 2.5 (18) | 2.4 (10) | 2.7 (8) | |
Unemployed | 1.9 (14) | 2.4 (10) | 1.3 (4) | |
Use of medication in the last year | 92.8 (667) | 95.5 (405) | 88.9 (264) | <0.001 *** |
Type of medication | ||||
Analgesic | 62.4 (449) | 66.8 (282) | 56.2 (167) | <0.05 * |
Antibiotic | 40.6 (292) | 44.3 (187) | 35 (104) | |
NSAIDs | 30.7 (221) | 31.5 (133) | 29.6 (88) | |
Antacid | 21 (151) | 22 (93) | 19.5 (58) | |
Antihistamines | 11.9 (86) | 15.9 (67) | 6.4 (19) | |
Skeletal muscle relaxants | 10.6 (76) | 10.9 (46) | 10.1 (3) |
Total n = 719 | Health Sciences-Related n = 190 | Not Health Sciences-Related n = 529 | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
How do you dispose of medications? | ||||
Household trash | 60.7 (436) | 42.3 (80) | 67.3 (356) | <0.001 *** |
Containers | 15.7 (113) | 38.1 (72) | 7.8 (41) | <0.001 *** |
Do not dispose of it | 8.6 (62) | 6.9 (13) | 9.3 (49) | 0.367 |
Destruction/Dilution | 7.5 (54) | 4.8 (9) | 8.5 (45) | 0.108 |
Drainage | 6.7 (48) | 7.9 (15) | 6.2 (33) | 0.402 |
Pharmacy | 4.7 (34) | 11.6 (22) | 2.3 (12) | <0.001 *** |
Donation | 3.3 (24) | 2.6 (5) | 3.6 (19) | 0.643 |
Hospital | 1.4 (10) | 0 (0) | 1.9 (10) | 0.071 |
Has seen the containers according to employment in Health-related area | ||||
Has not seen the containers | 65.5 (470) | 43.4 (82) | 73.3 (388) | <0.001 *** |
Does not know what the containers are for | 72.7 (522) | 51.9 (98) | 80.2 (424) | <0.001 *** |
Where the subjects have seen the containers according to employment in Health-related area | ||||
Pharmacies | 24.7 (177) | 43.9 (83) | 17.8 (94) | <0.001 *** |
Hospitals | 11 (79) | 20.1 (38) | 7.8 (41) | <0.001 *** |
Supermarkets | 10.3 (74) | 13.8 (26) | 9.1 (48) | 0.72 |
Lab Testing Provider | 2.5 (18) | 2.1 (4) | 2.6 (14) | 0.793 |
Others | 1.8 (13) | 5.8 (11) | 0.4 (2) | <0.001 *** |
Schools | 1.1 (8) | 2.1 (4) | 0.8 (4) | 0.217 |
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Benítez-Rico, A.; Pérez-Martínez, A.; Muñóz-López, B.I.; Martino-Roaro, L.; Alegría-Baños, J.A.; Vergara-Castañeda, A.; Islas-García, A. Medical Household Waste as a Potential Environmental Hazard: An Ecological and Epidemiological Approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 5366. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20075366
Benítez-Rico A, Pérez-Martínez A, Muñóz-López BI, Martino-Roaro L, Alegría-Baños JA, Vergara-Castañeda A, Islas-García A. Medical Household Waste as a Potential Environmental Hazard: An Ecological and Epidemiological Approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(7):5366. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20075366
Chicago/Turabian StyleBenítez-Rico, Adriana, Arizbeth Pérez-Martínez, Bryan Isaac Muñóz-López, Laura Martino-Roaro, Jorge Adan Alegría-Baños, Arely Vergara-Castañeda, and Alejandro Islas-García. 2023. "Medical Household Waste as a Potential Environmental Hazard: An Ecological and Epidemiological Approach" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 7: 5366. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20075366