Mechanisms, Techniques and Devices of Airborne Virus Detection: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Sampling Techniques and Devices of Airborne Viruses
3.1. Primary Mechanisms
3.1.1. Mass Differences of Components in Aerosol
Impactor
Cyclone
Impinger
3.1.2. Filtration
3.1.3. Electrostatic Precipitator
3.1.4. Particle Amplifier
3.1.5. Application Examples
3.2. Enhancement Techniques
3.2.1. Aerosol Precharging
3.2.2. Liquefied Collection Plate
- (1)
- PMs have to be eluted into liquid before conducting further monitoring tests;
- (2)
- There is greater potential for viral infectious decay on dray plates. Additionally, this is also a challenge with most methods;
- (3)
- The high velocity of wind may cause PMs to re-aerosolize.
3.2.3. Cavities and Ribs on the Inner Wall of the Pipe
3.2.4. Hydrosol to Hydrosol Enrichment
3.2.5. Other Issues
3.3. Comparisons on Airborne Virus Sampling Devices
3.3.1. Combinations of Multiple Primary Mechanisms
3.3.2. Applications of Enhancing Techniques
3.4. Differences between Virus Sampling and Virus Detection
- (1)
- High flow rate: >1000 L/min; medium flow rate: 100–1000 L/min; low flow rate: <100 L/min.
- (2)
- Particle size spectrum—collection efficiency: high collection efficiency ≥ 70%, medium collection efficiency: 40–70%, low collection efficiency: <30% low collection efficiency.
- (3)
- Collection efficiency—particle size spectrum: full particle size collection device, partial particle size collection device, targeted collection device.
4. Detection Techniques of Airborne Virus
4.1. Nucleic Acid Detection Techniques
4.1.1. Polymerase Chain Reaction
4.1.2. Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification
4.1.3. Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
4.2. Antigen Detection Techniques
4.2.1. Surface Plasmon Resonances
4.2.2. Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
4.2.3. Electrochemical Detection Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Techniques
4.3. Serological Tests
4.4. Other Methods
4.5. Advantages and Limitations of Detection Techniques
5. Application Scenario-Dependent Devices for Airborne Virus Detection
5.1. Device Classification
5.1.1. Environmental Monitoring Device
High-Flow Environment Aerosol Monitoring Device
- (1)
- Aerosol collector: high flow rate, high collection efficiency for the full particle size range.
- (2)
- Hydrosol collector: high hydrosol flow rate, high sensitivity, short response time.
- (3)
- Many researchers have developed such CDs, and environmental monitoring devices should be able to maintain a high level of particle collection efficiency at high flow rate while also delivering hydrosol samples to the back-end high-sensitivity detection module in real time.
Portable Environment Sensor
- (1)
- Aerosol collector: high flow rate, high collection efficiency for particle size range of human-generated PM.
- (2)
- Hydrosol collector: high sensitivity, short response time.
5.1.2. Individual Detection Device
- (1)
- Aerosol collector: low flow rate, high collection efficiency for particle size range of human-generated PM.
- (2)
- Hydrosol collector: ultra-high sensitivity, short response time.
5.2. Building Ventilation and Airborne Virus Detection
5.2.1. Critical Sites
5.2.2. Full Ventilation Environment
5.2.3. Partial Ventilation Environment
Partial Ventilation with Return Air
Partial Ventilation-without Return Air
Natural Ventilation
5.3. Forward to an Intelligent Detection Strategy of Airborne Virus
- (1)
- Individual detection devices with ultra-high sensitivity and low flow rates are used to ensure that no viral aerosol PMs are produced by people entering a critical site.
- (2)
- A high-flow environment aerosol monitoring device with an ultra-high flow rate is used to collect and monitor viral PMs in the full ventilation environment’s inlet and outlet, as well as the partial ventilation environment’s inlet and return pipe.
- (3)
- A portable environmental sensor is used as a supplement because the air leakage from partial and natural ventilation is insufficient for regular monitoring.
- (4)
- The collection device at the front end determines CD collection efficiency, but the detection module at the back end determines the specific length of response time, and the detection limit is influenced by both the collection efficiency and the detection method.
- (5)
- The enhancement technique improves indoor air quality and contributes to the prevention and control of airborne diseases in indoor environments by lowering PM concentrations and virus activity in inlets and return pipes.
6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Device | Flow Rate (L/min) | Collected Particle Size (µm) | Efficiency (%) | Applied Principles | Device Classification | Publications |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Highly efficient in-line wet cyclone air sampler | 1000 | 1 | 50 | Cyclone, impactor | Environmental monitoring device | [31,32] |
1.5 | 78.3 | |||||
>3 | about 100 | |||||
High-volume sampler for size-selective sampling | 1000 | Stage 1: >10 | 50 | Cyclone, filtration | Environmental monitoring device | [33,34] |
Stage 2: 2.5–10 | <56 | |||||
Stage 3: <2.5 | 100 | |||||
Personal Electrostatic Particle Concentrator (EPC) | 1.2 | 0.05–2 | 99.3–99.8 | Impactor, electrostatic precipitator | Individual detection device | [35] |
Exhaled-Breath Bioaerosol Collector (G-II) | 130 | >0.05 | >85 | Amplifier and impactor | Portable environment sensor | [36] |
Automated Electrostatic Sampler (AES) | 1.2 | 0.3–0.4 | >70 | Liquefied acquisition plate, precharging, electrostatic precipitator | Individual detection device | [29] |
0.65–0.8 | >90 | |||||
0.8–2.0 | 100 | |||||
High air flow-rate electrostatic sampler | 40 | 0.109 | 88 | Liquefied acquisition plate, electrostatic precipitator | Portable environment sensor | [24] |
60 | 79 | |||||
80 | 82 | |||||
100 | 71 | |||||
Electrostatic precipitation-based portable low-cost sampler | 10 | 0.01–10 | >80 | Premixing, electrostatic precipitator | Portable environment sensor | [37] |
Integrated microfluidic electrostatic sampler (IMES) | 2.8 | 0.2–10 | >90 | Liquefied acquisition plate, pre-charging and electrostatic precipitator | Individual detection device, portable environment sensor | [38] |
13.2 | >60 | |||||
Viral aerosol sampling system using a cooler and steam-jet aerosol collector (SJAC) | 12.5 | 0.03–0.1 | 70–99 | Cyclone, aerosol premixing | Portable environment sensor | [39] |
Low-Cost Micro-Channel Aerosol Collector | 1.5 | 0.5 | 50 | Micro-Channel cyclone | Individual detection device | [40] |
>1 | 90 | |||||
>2 | 100 |
Detection Techniques (Acronym) | Detection Techniques (Full Name) | Description | Advantages | Disadvantages | Publications |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PCR | Polymerase chain reaction | Using primers, thermal cycling, thermal cycling needs to go through three temperature changes. | High accuracy and specificity, low detection limit, suitable for all kinds of samples. | Need a long time and special laboratory environment. | [11,41] |
LAMP | Loop-mediated isothermal amplification | In vitro amplification of nucleic acids at a constant temperature of typically 60–65 °C. | Cheap, just a hot plate. | High demand for primers, false positive rate may be high. | [42,43,44,45,46] |
CRISPR | Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats | Cas enzyme indiscriminately cuts the surrounding single strand after activation. | Fast and specific. | Relies on the preamplification to detect the targets when concentrations below femtomolar level. | [47,48,49,50,51,52] |
ELISA | Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay | An enzyme is used to display and convert readings in a measurable manner based on the interaction between antigen and antibody. | The detection takes only ten minutes, no special instrument required. | Sensitivity and specificity are limited. Does not apply to all virus types. | [41,53,54] |
SPR | Surface plasmon resonance | Light hits a sensor which covered with a metal film. Measures the intensity of the refracted light. | The analyte concentrations can be determined and data on biological reaction kinetics can be obtained, with a low LOD character. | Sensors are difficult to reuse. | [55,56] |
MS | Mass spectrometry | Mass spectrometry and PCR technology are perfectly combined in nucleic acid mass spectrometry, making it ideal for the investigation of dozens to hundreds of gene loci. | It can be used for direct sample detection while the high-throughput features support multi-site multi-targeted detection. | Professional needs are comparatively high, standardization plans are few, and automation plans are expensive. | [57,58] |
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Chang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Li, W.; Wei, Z.; Tang, S.; Chen, R. Mechanisms, Techniques and Devices of Airborne Virus Detection: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 5471. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20085471
Chang Y, Wang Y, Li W, Wei Z, Tang S, Chen R. Mechanisms, Techniques and Devices of Airborne Virus Detection: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(8):5471. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20085471
Chicago/Turabian StyleChang, Yuqing, Yuqian Wang, Wen Li, Zewen Wei, Shichuan Tang, and Rui Chen. 2023. "Mechanisms, Techniques and Devices of Airborne Virus Detection: A Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 8: 5471. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20085471