Challenges for the Mental Health of Refugee Artists: Perspectives of the ADAPT Model
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Models of Perception of Refugees’ Mental Health
- (a)
- traumas experienced during conflicts have significant contexts, are simultaneous or sequential, and are complex in nature;
- (b)
- there are several stages leading from trauma to psychopathology and at each stage, the individual can adapt positively, depending on their own resources. Therefore, deterministic models should not be used;
- (c)
- there is a fluid and fine line between non-normative and normative psychological responses;
- (d)
- the external world is a reflection of the individual’s internal world and the individual is in constant bilateral interaction with it;
- (e)
- the healing process itself is an active process in which both individuals and societies naturally mobilize in order to adapt and survive;
- (f)
- even in the most difficult conditions, post-traumatic growth and positive change are possible;
- (g)
- in any society, including a post-conflict society, there is a certain percentage of the population that has symptoms of mental disorders both before and after the conflict.
1.2. Refugee Trauma
The stressor producing this syndrome would evoke significant symptoms of distress in most people, and is generally outside such common experiences as bereavement, chronic illness, business losses, or martial conflict. The trauma may be experienced alone (rape or assault) or in the company of groups of people (military combat). Stressors producing this disorder include natural disasters (floods, earthquakes), accidental man-made disasters (car accidents with serious physical injury, airplane crushes, large fires), or deliberate man-made disasters (bombing, torture, death camps.)
1.3. The Role of Art in Coping with Trauma
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Methodology
2.2. Sample
2.3. Procedures of Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Community
3.1.1. Community Back Home
Yes, after Saddam has gone in April 2003, Mosul was a very quiet and safe city until November 2004. I saw with my own eyes Daesh and Al-Qaeda coming: they have guns from Americans, in Ramadan they drink water, they’re smoking. They’re criminals. We know where they came from. From November 2004 until now—Mosul disappeared because of Islamists. They killed Syrian women—just because they were coming from Syria in 2004. I wrote some stories about that. One of them, she has been killed outside my house. She was lying there for 12 days. Because you cannot help them. If you call police, they will kill you and destroy your house. 12 days dogs were eating this body. Every day I saw this and I told my wife that maybe one day I’ll be like this. Outside my house (…)
3.1.2. Host Community
Oh my God, I’m going back again to that level and to that stage that I’ve been, I couldn’t write just because I’m surrounded with circumstances that I’m not in danger now, I’m safe but still the life is not easy to deal with and the system is killing me from inside. Even if it’s good system for me, for my benefit, for my kids’ benefit. But still you feel after while exhausted because your body, and your mind never adjusted to this system before, and you lived your life like a wildlife. And barely we have system to go through because everybody in Iraq may live like independent individual, and here they take care of everything. If I’m not to go to the hospital, I just go with my money. If I want to go to the doctor—I just pay, and I don’t wait for the system to come and help me.
3.1.3. Family
Since I was young, when I was at high school, I wanted to study medicine. When I didn’t get enough grades, I wanted to study something related. So, I went to study biology. But my parents weren’t happy with that, so they put a lot of pressure on me to change, they wanted me to study something related with the religion. So, I started something just because they wanted. But at the same time, I started my rebellion. I was being forced to do something that I didn’t want.
3.1.4. Friends
The friends that helped me in Egypt, after I came here—they told bad things to me, they told that I’m coward. They told I run away as a rat. And one of them said: “Why you write about Egypt? You are not in Egypt, you’ve gone away.” They know my problems, they know what am I suffering, they know all things, but I don’t know why they do that. I cannot understand why.
3.1.5. Other Artists/Activists
Yes, bigger city—to find someone who understands me, to find a group having the same idea, working together. In Norway you cannot find. In Tromso I had one friend. I must travel eleven hours.
3.1.6. Reference to Important Historical/Sociopolitical/Social/Cultural Events/Persons
Not “I am France” that means “I lead France”. De Gaulle meant: “I’m the leader”. “I am Sinai” but not leader, I feel as something from Sinai as trees, all details.
3.1.7. Differences/Similarities between Home and Host/Other Country
Some writers wrote a lot but they didn’t get chance to publish anything. So, what am I doing here? If I was in my country, and writing all these things—I would publish them. It’s because of the difference in culture, and the traditions, and the interests of people.
3.1.8. Others
At the same time I had hope from the discussion I had with the fellow people in South Africa. There’s an Indian guy with whom I was staying with. He actually gave me a shelter. I felt I just need to die. By sharing this situations, I pulled my heart out, I cried—then at times I felt I’m getting better.
3.2. Artistic Activity
3.2.1. Artistic/Activist Path
Does this kind of life change my poetry and literature as well? I didn’t decide to use literature or poetry as a tool for my activism. But it happened. When your life changes, your mind changes—your poetry changes.
3.2.2. Genres of Art Practiced
Most popular job for writers is journalism. And after a while you’ll hate writing because of journalism, sometimes it kills the creative part of you because it’s not the creative thing, it’s not fictional, it’s reality, you’re dealing with reality. But you have to continue to not lose your name and so the people don’t forget you. So this kind of things affect our careers as artists, as fictional writer, and after a while you become like a machine repeating the same thing just because it’s the political market’s demand, if you understand what I mean. The situation demands for that. This upsets me, personally—most of my career.
3.2.3. Audiences
And the readers there in the prison encouraged me a lot—especially when I began with translating the “Blindness”—Saramango’s novel. When I began translating it, they began reading it chapter by chapter. Whenever I finished a chapter, they take it and read it and urged me to continue translating because they wanted to read.
3.2.4. Current Artistic Activity/Activism
But all the time I think ok—I’m finishing the novel I’m working on, I’m done 80% of it, and after that I ask myself—ok, you’re done with the most of the city but what else? What’s coming? So, every time, each time I think about something else. I don’t know what will come next, but still asking is something that brings hope. We will begin again. I will begin again. So, I will not stop.
3.2.5. Being a Famous Artist/Activist/Publisher/Translator
No, I have ideas about the next step. I want to be famous, I’ll do a lot of things, I’ll start film-making. I’m going to be very famous, ok?
3.2.6. Inspiration/Motivation
Everything can be helpful for a writer. Every experience—to be humiliated in your daily life is a very good thing I think. It can support your writing. But I don’t feel the effect now—maybe in the future I will get it, like a reward. But now—no, I can’t see it from this close position. The perspective is too short. In this case—maybe after I’ll be here for a couple of years.
3.3. Art and Migration
3.3.1. Migration and Being an Artist
I talk with some friends and they show some options, but until now I’m a little worried because in these three months I met some Swedish journalists, I visited some newspapers’ offices like “Sydsvenska Dagbladet” and also the radio in Malmö. I couldn’t find any journalists from other countries. All of them are Swedish. Because of this, I think it’s hard for me to work as a journalist here.
3.3.2. Choice of Migration
No, it was the best choice available for me as a family because if you chose to go to Sweden for example, it was risky not to get permanent residence. But here you can live as a refugee and pend residency. Because I wasn’t alone, I can move with my two kids.
3.3.3. Stopping Creation in Exile
But this stopping thing, I think it’s very common for writers, they stop for a while because they lose the connection with the work, with the figures, with every detail, but suddenly you take them back again. We don’t know how. It’s just like that. Something happens.
3.3.4. Continuing Creation in Exile
I published my books, I participated in gatherings, conferences but how many times you can ask me or call me a writer in exile?
3.3.5. Disadvantages of Migrating as an Artist
But when it comes to an artist, a writer—I think he’s facing more problems, some other reality. As a creative person always his thinking, his lifestyle—everything is something different. When he left all of his chances and others, he becomes mad.
3.4. Art and Persecution
3.4.1. Persecution in Home Country
Yes. In 2014 when I work in Mazar-i-Sharif, it’s the city in North Afghanistan, one night when I left the office, I was on the way walking across the road, and 2 gunmen came and attacked me. It was because before I had published some article about warlords and election, provincial election and also fundamentalist groups. They told me: “Why you write something about me, about us?”. I asked them: “Who are you? Are you terrorist, are you my enemy? I don’t have any enemy. Why?” They attacked me. Maybe it’s fine now. But they attacked me with a pistol and some knife.
3.4.2. Protection Strategies
I thought that I didn’t have anything to hide. Really, I was living in a glass home. They controlled me everywhere, and I don’t want to hide something. Everything I found I published and I was talking about it. Even in prison or under investigation. I thought that this is the best protection.
3.4.3. Story of Persecution
They’re observing my social media—my Facebook account is so much vulnerable nowadays. Someone informed me that you just deactivate your account, otherwise they’ll disable your account. It happened before 4 or 5 times they disabled my ID. I deactivated my account for 7 days. Now I have opened. But every time I’m in stress that now they’ll hack my Facebook. They can do anything. (…) They’re monitoring me—what I’m writing in social media.
3.4.4. Possibility/Impossibility of Going Back to Home Country
Yes, the first thing—if I want to go back to my own country; even though things have changed in Bangladesh—there’s very little opportunity. But my son and daughter, they’re getting Norwegian education and particularly my daughter, she was only 8, so she has almost forgotten reading in Bengali. So, if she went back she would not be able to communicate. That’s one part.
3.4.5. Censorship/Self-Censorship
And also, I found out that censorship is international thing. The only difference is that the consequence of expressing yourself are different in other places, but you still have consequences. Here in Norway, just like being avoided, you are not welcomed in some circles, they don’t like you. You might be kicked out.
3.5. Mind
3.5.1. Emotions as an Artistic Migrant
He was happy that someone else, from another language, of totally different background actually understands, and approves and gets really interested in his poems.
3.5.2. General Emotions in Migration
I was here for 2 weeks, the next 2 weeks I was in a total crisis. I was so depressed. I used to forget eating, I still do—I’m waiting for someone to call me to eat as they did in the compound. Then it got better.
3.5.3. Fear
Honestly, I’m scared every single day. It’s not finished.
3.5.4. Emotions during Persecution
But then I didn’t give up. I try to live.
4. Discussion
4.1. Pillar (2): Bonds and Networks
4.2. Community
4.3. Pillar (6): Art
4.4. Artistic Activity
4.5. Art and Migration
4.6. Art and Persecution
4.7. Pillar (7): Body and Mind
4.8. Mind
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- ICORN. Available online: http://www.icorn.org/ (accessed on 10 July 2022).
- UN General Assembly. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. United Nations. Treaty Ser. 1951, 189, 137–220. Available online: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3be01b964.html (accessed on 25 January 2023).
- Miller, K.E.; Rasmussen, A. The mental health of civilians displaced by armed conflict: An ecological model of refugee distress. Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci. 2017, 26, 129–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Anczyk, A.; Grzymała-Moszczyńska, H. The Psychology of Migration; Brill: Leiden, The Netherlands, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Miller, K.E.; Rasmussen, A. War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: Bridging the divide between trauma-focused and psychosocial frameworks. Soc. Sci. Med. 2010, 70, 7–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grzymała-Moszczyńska, H.; Nowicka, E. Goście i Gospodarze: Problem Adaptacji Kulturowej w Obozach dla Uchodźców oraz Otaczających je Społecznościach Lokalnych; Nomos: Krakow, Poland, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Silove, D. The ADAPT model: A conceptual framework for mental health and psychosocial programming in post conflict settings. Intervention 2013, 11/3, 237–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tay, A.K.; Silove, D. The ADAPT model: Bridging the gap between psychosocial and individual responses to mass violence and refugee trauma. Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci. 2017, 26, 142–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Silove, D. The psychosocial effects of torture, mass human rights violations and refugee trauma—Toward an integrated conceptual framework. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 1999, 187, 200–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McGregor, L.; Melvin, G.; Newman, L. An exploration of the adaptation and development after persecution and trauma (ADAPT) model with resettled refugee adolescents in Australia: A qualitative study. Transcult. Psychiatry 2016, 53, 347–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tay, A.K.; Mung, H.K.; Miah, M.A.A.; Balasundaram, S.; Ventevogel, P.; Badrudduza, M.; Khan, S.; Morgan, K.; Rees, S.; Mohsin, M.; et al. An integrative adapt therapy for common mental health symptoms and adaptive stress amongst Rohingya, Chin, and Kachin refugees living in Malaysia: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS Med. 2020, 17, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed.; American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC, USA, 1980.
- O’Donnell, M.L.; Schaefer, I.; Varker, T.; Kartal, D.; Forbes, D.; Bryant, R.A.A.; Silove, D.; Creamer, M.; McFarlane, A.; Malhi, G.; et al. A systematic review of person-centered approaches to investigating patterns of trauma exposure. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2017, 2017, 208–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2000.
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.; American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2013.
- Friedman, M.J.; Resick, P.A.; Bryant, R.A.; Brewin, C.R. Considering PTSD for DSM-5. Depress. Anxiety 2011, 28, 750–769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Greenwald, R. Child Trauma Handbook: A Guide for Helping Trauma-Exposed Children and Adolescents; The Haworth Reference Press: New York, NY, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Bonanno, G.A. Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? Am. Psychol. 2004, 59, 20–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rothschild, B. Trauma Essentials; W.W. Norton & Company: New York, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Koch, S.C.; Weidinger-von der Recke, B. Traumatised refugees: An integrated dance and verbal therapy approach. Arts Psychother. 2009, 36, 289–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rothschild, B. The Body Remembers; W.W. Norton & Company: New York, NY, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Nickerson, A.; Bryant, R.A.; Silove, D.; Steel, Z. A critical review of psychological treatments of posttraumatic stress disorder in refugees. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2011, 31, 399–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phillimore, J. Refugees, acculturation strategies, stress and integration. J. Soc. Policy 2011, 40/03, 575–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gleeson, C.; Frost, R.; Sherwood, L.; Shevlin, M.; Hyland, P.; Halpin, R.; Murphy, J.; Silove, D. Post-migration factors and mental health outcomes in asylum-seeking and refugee populations: A systematic review. Eur. J. Psychotraumatology 2020, 11, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fazel, M.; Wheeler, J.; Danesh, J. Prevalence of serious mental disorder in 7000 refugees resettled in western countries: A systematic review. Lancet 2005, 365, 1309–1314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steel, Z.; Silove, D.; Brooks, R.; Momartin, S.; Alzuhairi, B.; Susljik, I. Impact of immigration detention and temporary protection on the mental health of refugees. Br. J. Psychiatry 2006, 188, 58–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Potocky-Tripodi, M. Best Practice for Social Work with Refugees and Immigrants; Columbia University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Karam, E.G.; Friedman, M.J.; Hill, E.D.; Kessler, R.C.; McLaughlin, K.A.; Petukhova, M.; Sampson, L.; Shahly, V.; Angermeyer, M.C.; Bromet, E.J.; et al. Cumulative traumas and risk thresholds: 12-month PTSD in the World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Depress. Anxiety 2014, 31, 130–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Duhig, M.; Patterson, S.; Connell, M.; Foley, S.; Capra, C.; Dark, F.; Gordon, A.; Singh, S.; Hides, L.; McGrath, J.J.; et al. The prevalence and correlates of childhood trauma in patients with early psychosis. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2015, 49, 651–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Personal communication with the ICORN Network Administrative Centre, 2017–2019.
- Gretchen, E.; Koury, S.; Bennett, K.; Hartinger, C.; Green, S.; Nochajski, T. “I Feel Like I Am Finding Peace”: Exploring the Use of a Combined Art Therapy and Adapted Seeking Safety Program with Refugee Support Groups. Adv. Soc. Work 2017, 18, 103–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harris, D.A. The paradox of expressing speechless terror: Ritual liminality in the creative arts therapies’ treatment of posttraumatic distress. Arts Psychother. 2009, 36, 94–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Madsen, T.S.; Carlsson, J.; Nordbrandt, M.; Jensen, J.A. Refugee experiences of individual basic body awareness therapy and the level of transference into daily life. An interview study. J. Bodyw. Mov. Ther. 2016, 20, 243–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meyer DeMott, M.A.; Jakobsen, M.; Wentzel-Larsen, T.; Heir, T. A controlled early group intervention study for unaccompanied minors: Can Expressive Arts alleviate symptoms of trauma and enhance life satisfaction? Scand. J. Psychol. 2017, 58, 510–518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rowe, C.; Watson-Ormond, R.; English, L.; Rubesin, H.; Marshall, A.; Linton, K.; Amolegbe, A.; Agnew-Brune, C.; Eng, E. Evaluating art therapy to heal the effects of trauma among refugee youth: The Burma art therapy program evaluation. Health Promot. Trough Arts Gard. 2017, 18, 26–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schouten, K.A.; Hooren, S.; Knipscheer, J.; Kleber, R.; Hutschemaekers, G. Trauma- Focused Art Therapy in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Pilot Study. J. Trauma Dissociation 2018, 20, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ugurlu, N.; Akca, L.; Acarturk, C. An art therapy intervention for symptoms of post- traumatic stress, depression and anxiety among Syrian refugee children. Vulnerable Child. Youth Stud. 2016, 11, 89–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adams, J. Exiles, Art, and Political Activism: Fighting the Pinochet Regime from Afar. J. Refug. Stud. 2013, 26, 436–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chávez Leyva, Y. “Behind each beautiful painting is a child longing to be free”: Deep visual listening and children’s art during times of crisis. Glob. Stud. Child. 2021, 11, 123–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rose, E.E.; Bingley, A.F. Migrating art: A research design to support refugees’ recovery from trauma—A pilot study. Des. Health 2017, 1, 152–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Smet, S.; Rousseau, C.; Stalpaert, C.; Haene, L.D. A qualitative analysis of coping with trauma and exile in applied theatre with Syrian refugees: The role of within-group interactions. Arts Psychother. 2019, 66, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Creswell, J.W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 3rd ed.; Sage: London, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Sleijpen, M.; Boeije, H.R.; Kleber, R.J.; Mooren, T. Between power and powerlessness: A meta-ethnography of sources of resilience in young refugees. Ethn. Health 2016, 21, 158–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ungar, M. Qualitative Contributions to Resilience Research. Qual. Soc. Work 2003, 2, 85–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suzuki, L.A.; Prendes-Lintel, M.; Wertlieb, L.; Stallings, A. Exploring multicultural issues using qualitative methods. In Using Qualitative Methods in Psychology; Kopala, M., Suzuki, L.A., Eds.; Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1999; pp. 123–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, J.A.; Flowers, P.; Larkin, M. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research; Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Bouki, M.; Lamproukou, M.; Poulaki, C.; Louka, P. Working with Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Greece: The experience of Greek NGOs’ Mental Health Workers. Interpret. Phenomenol. Anal. 2020, 3, 182–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Da Silva Rebelo, M.J.; Fernández, M.; Meneses, C. Societies’ hostility, anger and mistrust towards Migrants: A vicious circle. J. Soc. Work 2021, 21, 1142–1162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Leo, A.; Cotrufo, P.; Gozzoli, C. The Refugee Experience of Asylum Seekers in Italy: A Qualitative Study on the Intertwining of Protective and Risk Factors. J. Immigr. Minor. Health 2021, 24, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hosseini, M.; Punzi, E. Afghan unaccompanied refugee minors’ understandings of integration. An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Smith Coll. Stud. Soc. Work 2021, 91, 165–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hussain, D.; Bhusan, B. Cultural factors promoting coping among Tibetan refugees: A qualitative investigation. Ment. Health Relig. Cult. 2011, 14, 575–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, H.; Thompson, A.; Downs, M. Non-Western interpreters’ experiences of trauma: The protective role of culture following exposure to oppression. Ethn. Health 2009, 14, 407–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosbrook, B.; Schweitzer, R.D. The meaning of home for Karen and Chin refugees from Burma: An interpretative phenomenological approach. Eur. J. Psychother. Couns. 2010, 12, 159–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Margherita, G.; Tessitore, F. From individual to social and relational dimensions in asylum-seekers’ narratives: A multidimensional approach. Eur. J. Psychother. Couns. 2019, 21, 96–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hess-Wiktor, K. Praktyczne problemy analizy w metodach fenomenologiczno- interpretacyjnych [Practical Problems of Analysis in Phenomenological-Interpretative Methods]. In Poza Zasadą Powszechności. Próby Idiograficzne; Opoczyńska, M., Ed.; Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego: Krakow, Poland, 2014; pp. 193–205. [Google Scholar]
- Gladden, J. The Coping Skills of East African Refugees: A Literature Review. Refug. Surv. Q. 2012, 31, 177–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steel, Z.; Silove, D.; Phan, T.; Bauman, A. Long-term effect of psychological trauma on the mental health of Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia: A population-based study. Lancet 2002, 360, 1056–1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tay, A.K.; Rees, S.; Chan, J.; Kareth, M.; Silove, D. Examining the broader psychosocial effects of mass conflict on PTSD symptoms and functional impairment amongst West Papuan refugees resettled in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Soc. Sci. Med. 2015, 132, 70–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tay, A.K.; Rees, S.; Tam, N.; Kareth, M.; Silove, D. Defining a combined constellation of complicated bereavement and PTSD and the psychosocial correlates associated with the pattern amongst refugees from West Papua. Psychol. Med. 2018, 49, 1481–1489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gemignani, M. Between Researcher and Researched: An Introduction to Countertransference in Qualitative Inquiry. Qual. Inq. 2011, 17, 701–708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jorden, S.; Matheson, K.; Anisman, H. Supportive and Unsupportive Social Interactions in Relation to Cultural Adaptation and Psychological Distress Among Somali Refugees Exposed to Collective or Personal Traumas. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 2009, 40, 853–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rangi, M. Hope and Sorrow of Displacement: Diasporic Art and Finding Home in Exile. Anthropol. Middle East 2015, 10, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khawaja, N.; White, K.; Schweitzer, R.; Greenslade, J. Difficulties and Coping Strategies of Sudanese Refugees: A Qualitative Approach. Transcult. Psychiatry 2008, 45, 489–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramsden, R.; Ridge, D. ‘It was the Most Beautiful Country I have Ever Seen’: The Role of Somali Narratives in Adapting to a New Country. J. Refug. Stud. 2013, 26, 226–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martin, R. Dancing in Exile: Performance, Protest, and the Syrian Civil War. ASAP/J. 2018, 3, 242–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teodorescu, D.S.; Heir, T.; Hauff, E.; Wentzel-Larsen, T.; Lien, L. Mental health problems and post-migration stress among multi-traumatized refugees attending outpatient clinics upon resettlement to Norway. Scand. J. Psychol. 2012, 53, 316–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mirzeler, M.K. Reviewed Work(s): Prince Twins Seven-Seven: His Art, His Life in Nigeria, His Exile in America by Henry Glassie. J. Am. Folk. 2013, 126, 109–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nochlin, L. Art and the Conditions of Exile: Men/Women, Emigration/Expatriation. Poet. Today 1996, 17, 317–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woodcock, J. Healing rituals with families in exile. J. Fam. Ther. 1995, 17, 397–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bowlt, J.E. Art in Exile: The Russian Avant-Garde and the Emigration. Art J. 1981, 41, 215–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Medina, A. Arts of Homelessness: Roberto Bolaño or the Commodification of Exile. Nov. A Forum Fict. 2009, 42, 546–554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Reilly Herrera, A. The “Consciousness of Exile”: Memory and the Vicarious Imagination in Cuban-American Literature and Art. J. West Indian Lit. 1998, 8, 82–98. [Google Scholar]
- McQuaid, K. Defenders Across Borders: Congolese Human Rights Defenders in Uganda’s Refugee Regime. Hum. Right Def. Hub Work. Pap. 2018, 4, 1–26. [Google Scholar]
- Tay, A.K.; Miah, M.A.; Khan, S.; Badrudduza, M.; Alam, R.; Balasundaram, S.; Rees, S.; Morgan, K.; Silove, D. Implementing Integrative Adapt Therapy with Rohingya refugees in Malaysia: A training-implementation model involving lay counsellors. Intervention 2019, 17, 267–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Theme Frequency | ||
---|---|---|
Bonds and Networks | ||
1 | COMMUNITY | 976 |
Community Back Home | ||
Host Community | ||
Family | ||
Friends | ||
Other Artists/activists | ||
Reference to Important Hist./Socio-political/Social/Cultural Events/Persons | ||
Differences/Similarities between Home and Host/Other Country | ||
Others | ||
Art | ||
2 | ARTISTIC ACTIVITY | 373 |
Artistic/Activist Path | ||
Genres of Art Practiced | ||
Audiences | ||
Current Artistic Activity/Activism | ||
Being a Famous Artist/Activist/Publisher/Translator | ||
Inspiration/Motivation | ||
3 | ART AND MIGRATION | 246 |
Migration and Being an Artist | ||
Choice of Migration | ||
Stopping Creation in Exile | ||
Continuing Creation in Exile | ||
Disadvantages of Migrating as an Artist | ||
4 | ART AND PERSECUTION | 214 |
Persecution in Home Country | ||
Protection Strategies | ||
Story of Persecution | ||
Possibility/Impossibility of Going Back to Home Country | ||
Censorship/Self-Censorship | ||
Body and Mind | ||
5 | MIND | 241 |
Emotions of Artistic Migrants | ||
General Emotions in Migration | ||
Fear | ||
Emotions during Persecution |
Bonds and Networks | |||
---|---|---|---|
1 | COMMUNITY | ||
No. of Respondents Referring to the Theme | Theme Frequency | ||
Community Back Home | 18 | 324 | |
Host Community | 18 | 312 | |
Family | 15 | 81 | |
Friends | 14 | 73 | |
Other Artists/activists | 13 | 70 | |
Reference to Important Hist. /Socio-political/Social/Cultural Events/Persons | 16 | 50 | |
Differences/Similarities between Home and Host/Other Country | 16 | 49 | |
Others | 6 | 17 |
Art | |||
---|---|---|---|
2 | ARTISTIC ACTIVITY | ||
No. of Respondents Referring to the Theme | Theme Frequency | ||
Artistic/Activist Path | 18 | 140 | |
Genres of Art Practiced | 18 | 68 | |
Audiences | 14 | 63 | |
Current Artistic Activity/Activism | 15 | 57 | |
Being a Famous Artist/Activist/Publisher/Translator | 13 | 27 | |
Inspiration/Motivation | 7 | 18 |
Art | |||
---|---|---|---|
3 | ART AND MIGRATION | ||
No. of Respondents Referring to the Theme | Theme Frequency | ||
Migration and Being an Artist | 11 | 103 | |
Choice of Migration | 13 | 48 | |
Stopping Creation in Exile | 7 | 37 | |
Continuing Creation in Exile | 7 | 33 | |
Disadvantages of Migrating as an Artist | 7 | 25 |
Art | |||
---|---|---|---|
4 | ART AND PERSECUTION | ||
No. of Respondents Referring to the Theme | Theme Frequency | ||
Persecution in Home Country | 14 | 94 | |
Protection Strategies | 10 | 40 | |
Story of Persecution | 13 | 39 | |
Possibility/Impossibility of Going Back to Home Country | 10 | 25 | |
Censorship/Self-Censorship | 9 | 16 |
Body and Mind | |||
---|---|---|---|
5 | MIND | ||
No. of Respondents Referring to the Theme | Theme Frequency | ||
Emotions of Artistic Migrants | 18 | 12 | |
General Emotions in Migration | 10 | 68 | |
Fear | 11 | 32 | |
Emotions during Persecution | 6 | 31 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Grzymała-Moszczyńska, H.; Różańska-Mglej, M. Challenges for the Mental Health of Refugee Artists: Perspectives of the ADAPT Model. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 5694. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20095694
Grzymała-Moszczyńska H, Różańska-Mglej M. Challenges for the Mental Health of Refugee Artists: Perspectives of the ADAPT Model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(9):5694. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20095694
Chicago/Turabian StyleGrzymała-Moszczyńska, Halina, and Małgorzata Różańska-Mglej. 2023. "Challenges for the Mental Health of Refugee Artists: Perspectives of the ADAPT Model" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 9: 5694. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20095694