Subjective Happiness, Frequency of Laughter, and Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study Based on the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study (JAGES)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Group
2.2. Definitions of Hypertension
2.3. Definitions of Laughter/Subjective Happiness
2.4. Definitions for Obesity and Underweight
2.5. Definition of Caregiving and Assistance Status
2.6. Definition of Household Income
2.7. Definitions Related to the Number of Teeth and Chewing Ability
2.8. Definition of Drinking and Smoking Habits
2.9. Definition of TMIG-IC
2.10. Definitions Regarding Social Network
2.11. Statistical Analysis Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Hypertension | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | Class | Yes | No | Total | p-Value |
Age (years) | 73.3 ± 6.1 | 74.4 ± 6.2 | <0.001 | ||
Sex | Male | 5771 (47.5) | 4800 (46.3) | 10,571 (47.0) | 0.066 |
Female | 6368 (52.5) | 5564 (53.7) | 11,932 (53.0) | ||
Laughter frequency/subjective happiness | Infrequent laughter/low level of subjective happiness | 4044 (33.3) | 3608 (34.8) | 7652 (34.0) | 0.043 |
Frequent laughter/low level of subjective happiness | 1792 (14.8) | 1570 (15.1) | 3362 (14.9) | ||
Infrequent laughter/high level of subjective happiness | 2941 (24.2) | 2428 (23.4) | 5369 (23.9) | ||
Frequent laughter/high level of subjective happiness | 3362 (27.7) | 2758 (26.6) | 6120 (27.2) | ||
BMI | Underweight | 1068 (9.2) | 423 (4.3) | 1491 (7.0) | <0.001 |
Normal | 8612 (74.3) | 6526 (66.3) | 15,138 (70.6) | ||
Obesity | 1911 (16.5) | 2897 (29.4) | 4808 (22.4) | ||
Caregiving/assistance status | Not needed | 11,441 (96.9) | 9714 (96.4) | 21,155 (96.7) | 0.038 |
Needed but not received | 307 (2.6) | 316 (3.1) | 623 (2.8) | ||
Received | 61 (0.5) | 43 (0.4) | 104 (0.5) | ||
Household income | JPY ≥2 million | 7842 (73.5) | 6519 (72.6) | 14,361 (73.1) | 0.176 |
JPY <2 million | 2827 (26.5) | 2455 (27.4) | 5282 (26.9) | ||
Number of teeth | ≥20 teeth | 6228 (52.6) | 5077 (50.3) | 11,305 (51.6) | <0.001 |
<20 teeth | 5605 (47.4) | 5011 (49.7) | 10,616 (48.4) | ||
Chewing ability | Anything | 4818 (39.8) | 3974 (38.5) | 8792 (39.2) | 0.027 |
Almost | 6522 (53.9) | 5717 (55.3) | 12,239 (54.5) | ||
Limited | 728 (6.0) | 595 (5.8) | 1323 (5.9) | ||
Rarely chewing | 28 (0.2) | 42 (0.4) | 70 (0.3) | ||
Liquid diet | 10 (0.1) | 7 (0.1) | 17 (0.1) | ||
Drinking habits | No drinker | 7367 (61.4) | 5953 (58.1) | 13,320 (59.9) | <0.001 |
Former drinker | 604 (5.0) | 518 (5.1) | 1122 (5.0) | ||
Current drinker | 4019 (33.5) | 3771 (36.8) | 7790 (35) | ||
Smoking habits | No smoker | 8722 (72.9) | 7620 (74.6) | 16,342 (73.7) | <0.001 |
Former smoker | 1875 (15.7) | 1700 (16.6) | 3575 (16.1) | ||
Current smoker | 1366 (11.4) | 896 (8.8) | 2262 (10.2) | ||
TMIG-IC | Good | 9672 (79.7) | 8239 (79.5) | 17,911 (79.6) | 0.737 |
Poor | 2467 (20.3) | 2125 (20.5) | 4592 (20.4) | ||
Frequency of seeing friends | 4+ times/week | 2048 (17.6) | 1710 (17.3) | 3758 (17.5) | 0.518 |
2–3 times/week | 2282 (19.6) | 2019 (20.4) | 4301 (20.0) | ||
Once/week | 1550 (13.3) | 1317 (13.3) | 2867 (13.3) | ||
1–3 times/month | 2640 (22.7) | 2159 (21.9) | 4799 (22.3) | ||
A few times/year | 2149 (18.5) | 1821 (18.4) | 3970 (18.4) | ||
Not seeing friends | 974 (8.4) | 854 (8.6) | 1828 (8.5) | ||
Number of friends met | ≥10 | 4158 (35.7) | 3362 (34.1) | 7520 (35.0) | 0.021 |
6–9 | 1633 (14.0) | 1314 (13.3) | 2947 (13.7) | ||
3–5 | 2833 (24.3) | 2534 (25.7) | 5367 (24.9) | ||
1 or 2 | 2067 (17.7) | 1778 (18.0) | 3845 (17.9) | ||
0 (none) | 967 (5.5) | 866 (5.8) | 1833 (5.7) | ||
Family living arrangement | Others | 9974 (85.7) | 8475 (85.6) | 18,449 (85.7) | 0.894 |
Living alone | 1666 (14.3) | 1423 (14.4) | 3089 (14.3) | ||
Employment | Employed | 2846 (24.9) | 2213 (22.9) | 5059 (24.0) | <0.001 |
Unemployed | 8598 (75.1) | 7455 (77.1) | 16,053 (76.0) | ||
Hobbies | Yes | 10,395 (87.8) | 8664 (86.1) | 19,059 (87.0) | <0.001 |
No | 1444 (12.2) | 1401 (13.9) | 2845 (13.0) | ||
Marital status | With spouse (including common-law marriage) | 8791 (73.6) | 7197 (70.7) | 15,988 (72.3) | <0.001 |
Others | 3148 (26.4) | 2981 (29.3) | 6129 (27.7) |
All | Men | Women | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | Class | Age- and Sex- Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Multiple-Adjusted OR (95% CI) † (n = 22,503) | Multiple-Adjusted OR (95% CI) ‡ (n = 10,571) | Multiple-Adjusted OR (95% CI) ‡ (n = 11,932) |
Age | Continuous | 1.03 (1.03–1.03) | 1.04 (1.03–1.04) | 1.02 (1.01–1.03) | 1.05 (1.04–1.06) |
Sex | Female (ref. male) | 1.04 (0.99–1.10) | 1.23 (1.15–1.32) | ||
Laughter frequency/subjective happiness | Frequent laughter/low level of subjective happiness (ref. Infrequent laughter/low level of subjective happiness) | 1.00 (0.92–1.09) | 0.99 (0.91–1.08) | 0.96 (0.85–1.09) | 1.03 (0.91–1.15) |
Infrequent laughter/high level of subjective happiness | 0.90 (0.84–0.96) | 0.91 (0.84–0.98) | 0.85 (0.77–0.94) | 0.97 (0.87–1.07) | |
Frequent laughter/high level of subjective happiness | 0.92 (0.86–0.98) | 0.91 (0.85–0.98) | 0.90 (0.81–1.00) | 0.93 (0.84–1.03) | |
BMI | Underweight (ref. normal) | 0.49 (0.44–0.55) | 0.49 (0.44–0.56) | 0.44 (0.36–0.54) | 0.54 (0.46–0.62) |
Obesity | 2.06 (1.93–2.20) | 2.06 (1.93–2.20) | 1.93 (1.76–2.13) | 2.19 (1.99–2.41) | |
Caregiving/assistance status | Needed but not received (ref. not needed) | 1.05 (0.89–1.23) | |||
Received | 0.69 (0.46–1.02) | ||||
Number of teeth | <20 teeth (ref. ≥20 teeth) | 1.00 (0.95–1.06) | |||
Chewing ability | Almost (ref. anything) | 1.02 (0.96–1.08) | 1.04 (0.98–1.10) | 1.01 (0.93–1.10) | 1.04 (0.96–1.13) |
Limited | 0.90 (0.80–1.01) | 0.92 (0.82–1.04) | 0.96 (0.81–1.14) | 0.88 (0.73–1.05) | |
Rarely chewing | 1.64 (1.01–2.65) | 1.65 (1.00–2.72) | 1.55 (0.80–3.00) | 1.71 (0.79–3.69) | |
Liquid diet | 0.77 (0.29–2.02) | 0.85 (0.31–2.29) | 1.39 (0.39–5.04) | 0.37 (0.07–1.97) | |
Drinking habits | Former drinker (ref. no drinker) | 1.16 (1.02–1.32) | 1.15 (1.00–1.31) | 1.41 (1.21–1.65) | 1.07 (0.81–1.41) |
Current drinker | 1.34 (1.25–1.42) | 1.38 (1.29–1.47) | 1.78 (1.63–1.94) | 0.96 (0.87–1.07) | |
Smoking habits | Former smoker (ref. no smoker) | 1.10 (1.01–1.19) | 1.04 (0.95–1.13) | 1.01 (0.92–1.11) | 0.81 (0.62–1.05) |
Current smoker | 0.82 (0.75–0.91) | 0.82 (0.75–0.91) | 0.77 (0.69–0.86) | 0.95 (0.76–1.17) | |
Number of friends met | 6–9 (ref. ≥10) | 0.98 (0.90–1.07) | 0.99 (0.91–1.08) | 0.94 (0.82–1.08) | 1.03 (0.92–1.15) |
3–5 | 1.08 (1.01–1.16) | 1.08 (1.01–1.17) | 1.12 (1.00–1.24) | 1.05 (0.95–1.16) | |
1 or 2 | 1.03 (0.95–1.12) | 1.02 (0.94–1.11) | 1.04 (0.92–1.17) | 1.01 (0.90–1.14) | |
0 (none) | 1.07 (0.96–1.18) | 1.06 (0.95–1.18) | 1.10 (0.95–1.26) | 1.03 (0.86–1.23) | |
Employment | Unemployed (ref. employed) | 1.00 (0.94–1.07) | |||
Hobbies | No (ref. Yes) | 1.11 (1.03–1.20) | 1.09 (1.00–1.19) | 1.07 (0.94–1.22) | 1.10 (0.98–1.23) |
Marital status | Others (ref. with spouse (including common-law marriage)) | 1.04 (0.98–1.11) |
Factors | Class | Multiple-Adjusted OR (95% CI) † (n = 22,503) | Multiple-Adjusted OR (95% CI) ‡ (n = 22,503) |
---|---|---|---|
Age | Continuous | 1.04 (1.03–1.04) | 1.04 (1.03–1.04) |
Sex | Female (ref. male) | 1.23 (1.15–1.31) | 1.23 (1.15–1.32) |
Laughter frequency | Frequent laughter (ref. infrequent laughter) | 0.98 (0.93–1.04) | |
Subjective happiness | High level of subjective happiness (ref. low level of subjective happiness) | 0.91 (0.86–0.97) | |
BMI | Underweight (ref. Normal) | 2.03 (1.80–2.29) | 2.03 (1.80–2.29) |
Obesity | 4.19 (3.68–4.76) | 4.18 (3.67–4.75) | |
Chewing ability | Almost (ref. anything) | 1.04 (0.99–1.10) | 1.04 (0.98–1.10) |
Limited | 0.94 (0.83–1.06) | 0.92 (0.82–1.05) | |
Rarely chewing | 1.69 (1.03–2.78) | 1.65 (1.00–2.72) | |
Liquid diet | 0.85 (0.32–2.31) | 0.85 (0.31–2.29) | |
Drinking habits | Former drinker (ref. no drinker) | 1.15 (1.01–1.32) | 1.15 (1.00–1.31) |
Current drinker | 1.38 (1.29–1.47) | 1.38 (1.29–1.47) | |
Smoking habits | Former smoker (ref. no smoker) | 1.04 (0.96–1.13) | 1.04 (0.95–1.13) |
Current smoker | 0.83 (0.75–0.91) | 0.82 (0.75–0.91) | |
Number of friends met | 6–9 (ref. ≥10) | 1.00 (0.91–1.09) | 0.99 (0.91–1.08) |
3–5 | 1.09 (1.02–1.18) | 1.08 (1.01–1.17) | |
1 or 2 | 1.04 (0.95–1.13) | 1.02 (0.94–1.11) | |
0 (none) | 1.07 (0.96–1.20) | 1.06 (0.95–1.18) | |
Hobbies | No (ref. yes) | 1.10 (1.01–1.20) | 1.09 (1.00–1.19) |
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Hayashi, F.; Shirai, Y.; Ohira, T.; Shirai, K.; Kondo, N.; Kondo, K. Subjective Happiness, Frequency of Laughter, and Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study Based on the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study (JAGES). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 5713. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20095713
Hayashi F, Shirai Y, Ohira T, Shirai K, Kondo N, Kondo K. Subjective Happiness, Frequency of Laughter, and Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study Based on the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study (JAGES). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(9):5713. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20095713
Chicago/Turabian StyleHayashi, Fumikazu, Yuka Shirai, Tetsuya Ohira, Kokoro Shirai, Naoki Kondo, and Katsunori Kondo. 2023. "Subjective Happiness, Frequency of Laughter, and Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study Based on the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study (JAGES)" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 9: 5713. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20095713