Explaining the Correlates of Eating Outside-of-Home Behavior in a Nationally Representative US Sample Using the Multi-Theory Model of Health Behavior Change: A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Questionnaire
2.4. Survey Validation
2.5. Structural Equation Modeling (Construct Validity)
2.6. Statistical Analysis
2.7. A-Priori Power Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Structural Equation Modeling (Measurement Model)
3.2. Comparing Baseline Characteristics and MTM Scores among Groups
3.3. Bivariate Correlation and Reliability
3.4. Findings of Regression Analyses
4. Discussion
4.1. Implications for Practice
4.2. Strengths and Limitations of Current Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Characteristics | Proportion in the Study Sample (%) | Census Distribution, Population Parameters * (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Female | 50.6 | 50.5 |
Male | 49.4 | 49.5 | |
Household income | Less than USD 19,999 | 21.2 | 21 |
USD 20 K–50 K | 35.6 | 35 | |
USD 50 K–100 K | 35.6 | 35 | |
<USD 100 K | 7.6 | 9 | |
Age | 18–34 years | 32.9 | 33 |
35–55 years | 32.3 | 31 | |
55+ years | 34.8 | 35 | |
Ethnicity | Non-Hispanic White | 61.9 | 60.1 |
Non-Hispanic Black | 12.3 | 13.4 | |
Hispanic | 17.4 | 18.5 | |
Others | 3.1 | 8 | |
Region | Midwest | 21.6 | 21 |
Northeast | 15.8 | 16 | |
South | 41.2 | 41 | |
West | 21.4 | 22 |
Variable Name | Categories | Overall Sample | Eat Outside of the Home (EOH) at Least Twice a Week | p Value | 95% Confidence Interval | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 532 | Group 1 Yes (n = 397) | Group 2 No (n = 135) | ||||
Age in years (M ± SD) | - | 45.71 ± 19.14 | 42.25 ± 17.78 | 55.89 ± 19.43 | <0.001 | 44.08, 47.34 |
BMI | - | 28.38 ± 7.00 | 28.57 ± 7.25 | 27.88 ± 6.26 | 0.31 | 27.76, 29.01 |
Gender | Male | 261 (49.4) | 196 (49.9) | 65 (48.1) | 0.7 | 44.73, 53.40 |
Female | 267 (50.6) | 197 (50.1) | 70 (51.9) | - | 45.85, 54.52 | |
Race/Ethnicity | Black or African American | 71 (13.5) | 62 (15.9) | 9 (6.7) | 0.01 | 10.57, 16.53 |
White | 324 (61.6) | 227 (58.1) | 97 (71.9) | 0.01 | 56.61, 65.07 | |
Hispanic, Latino, Latina, or Latinx | 94 (17.9) | 72 (18.4) | 22 (16.3) | 0.55 | 14.52, 21.18 | |
Other (Alaska Native, American Indian, Asian, Multiracial, Others) | 37 (7.0) | 30 (7.7) | 7 (5.2) | 0.32 | 4.94, 9.46 | |
Marital status | Married | 192 (36.1) | 144 (36.3) | 48 (35.6) | 0.92 | 32.00, 40.33 |
Never married | 166 (31.2) | 135 (34.0) | 31 (23.0) | 0.02 | 27.29, 35.33 | |
Divorced/Separated/Widowed | 127 (23.9) | 83 (20.9) | 44 (32.6) | 0.01 | 20.31, 27.73 | |
Other | 47 (8.8) | 35 (8.8) | 12 (8.9) | 0.95 | 6.56, 11.57 | |
Education | Graduate Degree | 43 (8.1) | 38 (9.6) | 5 (3.7) | 0.03 | 5.91, 10.73 |
Professional Degree | 23 (4.3) | 22 (5.5) | 1 (0.7) | 0.02 | 2.76, 6.42 | |
College Degree (Associate or Bachelorate) | 159 (29.9) | 118 (29.7) | 41 (30.4) | 0.92 | 26.02, 33.98 | |
Some college but no degree | 129 (24.2) | 85 (21.4) | 44 (32.6) | 0.01 | 20.66, 28.12 | |
High school graduate (or equivalent including GED) | 156 (29.3) | 119 (30.0) | 37 (27.4) | 0.55 | 25.48, 33.39 | |
Less than a high school diploma | 22 (4.1) | 15 (3.8) | 7 (5.2) | 0.63 | 2.61, 6.19 | |
Community type | Rural | 153 (28.8) | 106 (26.7) | 47 (34.8) | 0.16 | 24.95, 32.81 |
Suburban | 208 (39.1) | 157 (39.5) | 51 (37.8) | - | 34.93, 43.39 | |
Urban | 171 (32.1) | 134 (33.8) | 37 (27.4) | - | 28.19, 36.30 | |
Region | Midwest | 115 (21.6) | 88 (22.2) | 27 (20.0) | 0.62 | 18.19, 25.36 |
Northeast | 84 (15.8) | 54 (13.6) | 30 (22.2) | 0.02 | 12.79, 19.17 | |
South | 219 (41.2) | 173 (43.6) | 46 (34.1) | 0.06 | 36.95, 45.48 | |
West | 114 (21.4) | 82 (20.7) | 32 (23.7) | 0.48 | 18.01, 25.16 | |
Employment status | Yes | 333 (62.6) | 286 (72.0) | 47 (34.8) | <0.001 | 58.33, 66.72 |
No | 199 (37.4) | 111 (28.0) | 88 (65.2) | - | 33.28, 41.67 | |
Religion | Christian | 199 (37.4) | 151 (38.0) | 48 (35.6) | 0.61 | 33.28, 41.67 |
Non-Christian | 333 (62.6) | 246 (62.0) | 87 (64.4) | - | 58.33, 66.72 | |
Median income | Less than USD 19, 999 | 111 (21.2) | 73 (18.8) | 38 (28.1) | 0.10 | 17.49, 24.57 |
USD 20,000–50,000 | 186 (35.6) | 138 (35.6) | 48 (35.6) | - | 30.91, 39.18 | |
USD 50,001–100,000 | 186 (35.6) | 145 (37.4) | 41 (30.4) | - | 30.91, 39.18 | |
Great than USD 100,000 | 40 (7.6) | 32 (8.2) | 8 (5.9) | - | 5.43, 10.10 | |
No | 376 (70.7) | 273 (68.8) | 103 (76.3) | - | 66.61, 74.52 |
Variable Name | Categories | Overall Sample n (%) | Eat Outside Home (EOH) at Least Twice a Week | p Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 532 | Group 1 Yes (n = 397) | Group 2 No (n = 135) | |||
Currently smoke tobacco more than once a week | Yes | 166 (31.2) | 138 (34.8) | 28 (20.7) | 0.002 |
No | 366 (68.8) | 259 (65.2) | 107 (79.3) | - | |
Currently drink alcohol more than once a week | Yes | 156 (29.3) | 124 (31.2) | 32 (23.7) | 0.09 |
No | 376 (70.7) | 273 (68.8) | 103 (76.3) | - | |
When you do eat outside of the home, what kind of food do you prefer? | American | 232 (43.6) | 185 (46.6) | 47 (34.8) | 0.19 |
Chinese | 65 (12.2) | 44 (11.1) | 21 (15.6) | - | |
Mexican | 116 (21.8) | 86 (21.7) | 30 (22.2) | - | |
Seafood | 40 (7.5) | 29 (7.3) | 11 (8.1) | - | |
Italian | 31 (5.8) | 21 (5.3) | 10 (7.4) | - | |
Others | 48 (9.0) | 32 (8.1) | 16 (11.9) | - | |
How much money do you think your family spends on eating outside of the home per month? | USD 0–200 | 412 (77.4) | 280 (70.5) | 132 (97.8) | <0.001 |
USD 201–400 | 70 (13.2) | 67 (16.9) | 3 (2.2) | <0.001 | |
USD 401–600 | 26 (4.9) | 26 (6.5) | 0 (0.0) | <0.001 | |
< USD 600 | 24 (4.5) | 24 (6.1) | 0 (0.0) | <0.001 | |
Which meal do you eat outside home? | Breakfast | 46 (8.6) | 39 (9.8) | 7 (5.2) | 0.09 |
Lunch | 232 (43.6) | 180 (45.3) | 52 (38.5) | - | |
Snacks | 21 (3.9) | 15 (3.8) | 6 (4.4) | - | |
Dinner | 233 (43.8) | 163 (41.1) | 70 (51.9) | 0.2 | |
Where do you eat? | Fast-food restaurants | 196 (36.8) | 161 (40.6) | 35 (25.9) | <0.001 |
Restaurants | 243 (45.7) | 168 (42.3) | 75 (55.6) | 0.01 | |
Work (including canteens) and cafeterias | 41 (7.7) | 36 (9.1) | 5 (3.7) | 0.05 | |
Bars, friends’ or relatives’ houses, street, and others | 52 (9.8) | 32 (8.1) | 20 (14.8) | 0.02 |
MTM Construct | Eat Outside of the Home (EOH) at Least Twice a Week | p Value | Mean Difference | 95% CI of Mean Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes (n = 397) | No (n = 135) | ||||
Overall Initiation Score | 1.94 ± 1.32 | 3.00 ± 1.25 | <0.001 | 1.055 | 0.813, 1.297 |
Subscales | |||||
Perceived Advantages | 13.59 ± 4.93 | 12.66 ± 5.01 | 0.06 | −0.933 | −1.901, 0.036 |
Perceived Disadvantages | 13.38 ± 4.56 | 12.30 ± 4.64 | 0.02 | −1.074 | −1.970, −0.178 |
Participatory Dialogue | 0.21 ± 4.38 | 0.36 ± 5.32 | 0.78 | 0.141 | −0.859, 1.142 |
Behavioral Confidence | 14.26 ± 6.79 | 19.33 ± 6.79 | <0.001 | 5.07 | 3.74, 6.39 |
Changes in the Physical Environment | 7.17 ± 2.97 | 8.84 ± 3.11 | <0.001 | 1.67 | 1.08, 2.26 |
Overall Sustenance Score | 1.84 ± 1.24 | 2.75 ± 1.34 | <0.001 | −0.907 | −1.154, −0.659 |
Subscales | |||||
Emotional Transformation | 6.67 ± 3.03 | 9.14 ± 3.22 | <0.001 | −2.47 | −3.07, −1.87 |
Practice for Change | 6.16 ± 3.05 | 7.87 ± 3.21 | <0.001 | −1.71 | −2.32, −1.11 |
Change in the Social Environment | 5.42 ± 3.22 | 6.04 ± 3.46 | 0.05 | −0.62 | −1.29, 0.04 |
Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Participatory Dialogue | 1 | 0.207 ** [0.124, 0.287] | 0.161 ** [0.077, 0.243] | 0.147 ** [0.063, 0.229] | 0.143 ** [0.059, 0.225] | 0.202 ** [0.119, 0.282] |
2. Behavioral Confidence | 0.207 ** [0.124, 0.287] | 1 | 0.750 ** [0.711, 0.785] | 0.786 ** [0.751, 0.871] | 0.763 ** [0.725, 0.796] | 0.501 ** [0.434, 0.562] |
3. Changes in the Physical Environment | 0.161 ** [0.077, 0.243] | 0.750 ** [0.711, 0.785] | 1 | 0.745 ** [0.705, 0.781] | 0.692 ** [0.645, 0.734] | 0.485 ** [0.417, 0.547] |
4. Emotional Transformation | 0.147 ** [0.063, 0.229] | 0.786 ** [0.751, 0.871] | 0.745 ** [0.705, 0.781] | 1 | 0.741 ** [0.701, 0.777] | 0.479 ** [0.411, 0.542] |
5. Practice for Change | 0.143 ** [0.059, 0.225] | 0.763 ** [0.725, 0.796] | 0.692 ** [0.645, 0.734] | 0.741 ** [0.701, 0.777] | 1 | 0.620 ** [0.565, 0.670] |
6. Changes in the Social Environment | 0.202 ** [0.119, 0.282] | 0.501 ** [0.434, 0.562] | 0.485 ** [0.417, 0.547] | 0.479 ** [0.411, 0.542] | 0.620 ** [0.565, 0.670] | 1 |
Cronbach’s Alpha | - | 0.910 [0.897, 0.921] | 0.820 [0.791, 0.845] | 0.874 [0.855, 0.892] | 0.779 [0.744, 0.810] | 0.728 [0.686, 0.766] |
McDonald’s Omega | - | 0.908 [0.897, 0.921] | 0.822 [0.791, 0.845] | 0.875 [0.855, 0.892] | 0.781 [0.744, 0.810] | 0.745 [0.686, 0.766] |
Variables | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | β | B | β | B | β | B | β | |
Constant | 3.132 ** | 2.913 ** | 0.966 * | 0.820 | ||||
Age | 0.000 | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.030 | −0.004 | −0.063 | −0.005 | −0.069 |
BMI | 0.006 | 0.031 | 0.006 | 0.030 | 0.006 | 0.033 | 0.005 | 0.025 |
Gender: Male (Ref: Female) | −0.172 | −0.066 | −0.206 | −0.079 | −0.090 | −0.035 | −0.074 | −0.029 |
Race: White (Ref: Black) | −0.035 | −0.013 | −0.009 | −0.003 | −0.049 | −0.018 | −0.060 | −0.022 |
Hispanic | −0.319 | −0.095 | −0.348 | −0.104 | −0.168 | −0.050 | −0.161 | −0.048 |
Other | 0.155 | 0.028 | 0.241 | 0.044 | 0.219 | 0.040 | 0.208 | 0.038 |
Marital Status: Never Married (Ref: Married) | −0.100 | −0.036 | −0.080 | −0.029 | −0.063 | −0.023 | −0.049 | −0.018 |
Divorced/Separated/Widowed | −0.197 | −0.065 | −0.165 | −0.054 | 0.035 | 0.012 | 0.045 | 0.015 |
Other | −0.012 | −0.003 | −0.029 | −0.006 | 0.124 | 0.026 | 0.155 | 0.032 |
Education: Professional Degree (Ref: Graduate Degree) | 0.307 | 0.046 | 0.364 | 0.055 | 0.401 | 0.061 | 0.429 | 0.065 |
College degree | −0.030 | −0.011 | −0.019 | −0.007 | 0.115 | 0.041 | 0.080 | 0.029 |
Some college/No degree | −0.215 | −0.072 | −0.214 | −0.071 | −0.055 | −0.018 | −0.098 | −0.033 |
High school graduate | −0.077 | −0.027 | −0.032 | −0.011 | 0.075 | 0.026 | 0.077 | 0.027 |
Less than high school | −0.095 | −0.014 | −0.083 | −0.012 | 0.259 | 0.037 | 0.196 | 0.028 |
Community Type: Urban (Ref: Rural) | −0.100 | −0.036 | −0.044 | −0.016 | −0.005 | −0.002 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Suburban | 0.031 | 0.012 | 0.064 | 0.024 | 0.038 | 0.014 | 0.038 | 0.014 |
Region: Northeast (Ref: Midwest) | 0.188 | 0.053 | 0.238 | 0.067 | 0.010 | 0.003 | 0.036 | 0.010 |
South | 0.070 | 0.027 | 0.096 | 0.037 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.007 | 0.003 |
West | 0.098 | 0.031 | 0.075 | 0.024 | −0.160 | −0.051 | −0.159 | −0.050 |
Employment status: Working (Ref: Not Working) | 0.209 | 0.079 | 0.197 | 0.074 | 0.168 | 0.063 | 0.171 | 0.064 |
Religion: Christian (Ref: Non-Christian) | −0.103 | −0.038 | −0.118 | −0.044 | −0.096 | −0.036 | −0.105 | −0.039 |
Income: USD 20,000–50,000 (Ref: Less than USD 19,999) | 0.101 | 0.037 | 0.115 | 0.043 | 0.099 | 0.037 | 0.076 | 0.028 |
USD 50,001–100,000 | −0.139 | −0.051 | −0.070 | −0.026 | −0.032 | −0.012 | −0.040 | −0.015 |
>USD 100,000 | −0.191 | −0.040 | −0.151 | −0.031 | 0.157 | 0.033 | 0.147 | 0.030 |
Do you eat outside of the home: Yes (Ref: No) | −1.185 ** | −0.406 | −1.150 ** | −0.394 | −0.653 ** | −0.224 | −0.661 ** | −0.226 |
Do you currently use/smoke tobacco more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | 0.045 | 0.016 | 0.086 | 0.030 | 0.077 | 0.027 | 0.070 | 0.025 |
Do you currently drink alcohol more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | 0.028 | 0.010 | 0.038 | 0.013 | 0.009 | 0.003 | −0.001 | 0.000 |
Participatory dialogue | - | - | 0.056 ** | 0.202 | 0.016 | 0.060 | 0.016 | 0.057 |
Behavioral confidence | - | - | - | - | 0.110 ** | 0.606 | 0.081 ** | 0.449 |
Changes in the physical environment | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.089 ** | 0.210 |
R2 | 0.168 | - | 0.206 | - | 0.495 | - | 0.513 | - |
F | 3.338 ** | - | 4.132 ** | - | 15.043 ** | - | 15.579 ** | - |
ΔR2 | 0.168 | - | 0.038 | - | 0.289 | - | 0.018 | - |
ΔF | 3.338 ** | - | 21.453 ** | - | 254.717 ** | - | 16.208 ** | - |
Variables | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | β | B | β | B | β | B | β | |
Constant | 3.768 ** | 1.354 * | 1.214 * | 0.853 * | ||||
Age | −0.010 * | −0.143 | −0.014 ** | −0.210 | −0.015 ** | −0.216 | −0.012 | −0.168 |
BMI | 0.006 | 0.032 | 0.010 | 0.050 | 0.009 | 0.047 | 0.010 | 0.053 |
Gender: Male (Ref: Female) | −0.196 | −0.074 | −0.120 | −0.045 | −0.129 | −0.049 | −0.064 | −0.024 |
Race: White (Ref: Black) | −0.111 | −0.041 | −0.047 | −0.017 | −0.013 | −0.005 | 0.022 | 0.008 |
Hispanic | −0.125 | −0.037 | 0.073 | 0.021 | 0.133 | 0.039 | 0.168 | 0.049 |
Other | −0.117 | −0.021 | 0.027 | 0.005 | 0.035 | 0.006 | 0.105 | 0.019 |
Marital Status: Never Married (Ref: Married) | −0.191 | −0.067 | 0.008 | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.057 | 0.020 |
Divorced/Separate/Widow | −0.255 | −0.082 | −0.119 | −0.039 | −0.034 | −0.011 | 0.049 | 0.016 |
Other | −0.270 | −0.055 | −0.091 | −0.019 | −0.125 | −0.026 | −0.064 | −0.013 |
Education: Professional Degree (Ref: Graduate Degree) | 0.243 | 0.036 | 0.353 | 0.052 | 0.333 | 0.049 | 0.335 | 0.050 |
College degree | −0.168 | −0.059 | −0.092 | −0.032 | −0.035 | −0.012 | 0.012 | 0.004 |
Some college/No degree | −0.321 | −0.104 | −0.247 | −0.080 | −0.181 | −0.059 | −0.195 | −0.064 |
High school graduate | −0.321 | −0.110 | −0.239 | −0.082 | −0.224 | −0.077 | −0.208 | −0.072 |
Less than high school | −0.473 | −0.066 | −0.142 | −0.020 | −0.194 | −0.027 | −0.283 | −0.040 |
Community Type: Urban (Ref: Rural) | −0.033 | −0.011 | 0.053 | 0.019 | 0.070 | 0.024 | 0.031 | 0.011 |
Suburban | 0.053 | 0.020 | 0.068 | 0.025 | 0.069 | 0.025 | 0.050 | 0.019 |
Region: Northeast (Ref: Midwest) | 0.125 | 0.034 | −0.028 | −0.008 | −0.045 | −0.012 | −0.026 | −0.007 |
South | −0.052 | −0.019 | −0.202 | −0.075 | −0.152 | −0.057 | −0.141 | −0.053 |
West | −0.083 | −0.026 | −0.385 * | −0.120 | −0.361 * | −0.112 | −0.310 * | −0.096 |
Employment status: Working (Ref: Not Working) | 0.074 | 0.027 | 0.044 | 0.016 | 0.008 | 0.003 | −0.061 | −0.022 |
Religion: Christian (Ref: Non-Christian) | −0.063 | −0.023 | −0.019 | −0.007 | −0.036 | −0.013 | −0.037 | −0.013 |
Income: USD 20,000–50,000 (Ref: Less than USD 19,999) | 0.183 | 0.066 | 0.181 | 0.066 | 0.139 | 0.050 | 0.103 | 0.037 |
USD 50,001–100,000 | −0.136 | −0.049 | −0.044 | −0.016 | −0.083 | −0.030 | −0.046 | −0.016 |
>USD 100,000 | −0.455 | −0.092 | −0.090 | −0.018 | −0.118 | −0.024 | −0.151 | −0.031 |
Do you eat outside of the home: Yes (Ref: No) | −1.180 ** | −0.396 | −0.629 ** | −0.211 | −0.609 ** | −0.204 | −0.600 ** | −0.201 |
Do you currently use/smoke tobacco more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | 0.226 | 0.078 | 0.287 * | 0.099 | 0.254 * | 0.088 | 0.228 | 0.079 |
Do you currently drink alcohol more than once a week?: Yes (Ref: No) | −0.057 | −0.019 | −0.096 | −0.032 | −0.089 | −0.030 | −0.095 | −0.032 |
Emotional Transformation | - | - | 0.249 ** | 0.605 | 0.167 ** | 0.406 | 0.156 ** | 0.378 |
Practice for change | - | - | - | - | 0.111 ** | 0.263 | 0.045 | 0.106 |
Change in the Social Environment | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.113 ** | 0.281 |
R2 | 0.163 | - | 0.460 | - | 0.488 | - | 0.532 | - |
F | 3.212 ** | - | 13.547 ** | - | 14.654 ** | - | 16.806 ** | - |
ΔR2 | 0.163 | - | 0.297 | - | 0.029 | - | 0.043 | - |
ΔF | 3.212 ** | - | 245.193 ** | - | 25.129 ** | - | 41.015 ** | - |
Comparing Moderately Likely with Not at All or Somewhat Likely Combined | 95% CI (LCL, UCL) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | B | SE | Wald | p Value | Odd Ratio | LCL | UCL |
Age | −0.008 | 0.011 | 0.468 | 0.494 | 0.992 | 0.970 | 1.015 |
BMI | 0.020 | 0.021 | 0.993 | 0.319 | 1.021 | 0.980 | 1.063 |
Gender: Male (Ref: Female) | −0.287 | 0.307 | 0.874 | 0.350 | 0.751 | 0.411 | 1.370 |
Race: White (Ref: Black) | 0.031 | 0.449 | 0.005 | 0.944 | 1.032 | 0.428 | 2.487 |
Hispanic | −0.283 | 0.507 | 0.311 | 0.577 | 0.754 | 0.279 | 2.036 |
Other | 1.262 | 0.769 | 2.693 | 0.101 | 3.532 | 0.782 | 15.943 |
Marital Status: Never Married (Ref: Married) | 0.191 | 0.404 | 0.224 | 0.636 | 1.210 | 0.549 | 2.671 |
Divorced/Separate/Widow | 0.255 | 0.415 | 0.380 | 0.538 | 1.291 | 0.573 | 2.909 |
Other | −0.632 | 0.614 | 1.060 | 0.303 | 0.532 | 0.160 | 1.770 |
Education: Professional Degree (Ref: Graduate Degree) | 1.052 | 0.885 | 1.413 | 0.235 | 2.864 | 0.505 | 16.235 |
College degree | 0.821 | 0.616 | 1.777 | 0.183 | 2.273 | 0.680 | 7.601 |
Some college/No degree | 0.230 | 0.657 | 0.123 | 0.726 | 1.259 | 0.348 | 4.558 |
High school graduate | 0.796 | 0.649 | 1.507 | 0.220 | 2.217 | 0.622 | 7.907 |
Less than high school | 1.720 | 1.021 | 2.836 | 0.092 | 5.585 | 0.754 | 41.352 |
Community Type: Urban (Ref: Rural) | 0.578 | 0.376 | 2.356 | 0.125 | 1.782 | 0.852 | 3.726 |
Suburban | 0.223 | 0.364 | 0.375 | 0.540 | 1.250 | 0.612 | 2.552 |
Region: Northeast (Ref: Midwest) | 0.498 | 0.517 | 0.928 | 0.335 | 1.646 | 0.597 | 4.539 |
South | −0.056 | 0.391 | 0.021 | 0.885 | 0.945 | 0.439 | 2.033 |
West | 0.006 | 0.444 | 0.000 | 0.989 | 1.006 | 0.422 | 2.400 |
Employment status: Working (Ref: Not Working) | 0.735 | 0.382 | 3.711 | 0.054 | 2.086 | 0.987 | 4.407 |
Religion: Christian (Ref: Non-Christian) | −0.288 | 0.301 | 0.919 | 0.338 | 0.750 | 0.416 | 1.351 |
Income: USD 20,000–50,000 (Ref: Less than USD 19,999) | 0.525 | 0.432 | 1.476 | 0.224 | 1.690 | 0.725 | 3.941 |
USD 50,001–100,000 | −0.059 | 0.464 | 0.016 | 0.899 | 0.943 | 0.380 | 2.341 |
>USD 100,000 | 0.941 | 0.670 | 1.970 | 0.160 | 2.561 | 0.689 | 9.525 |
Do you eat outside of the home: Yes (Ref: No) | −0.482 | 0.422 | 1.304 | 0.254 | 0.617 | 0.270 | 1.413 |
Do you currently use/smoke tobacco more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | −0.274 | 0.316 | 0.749 | 0.387 | 0.761 | 0.409 | 1.413 |
Do you currently drink alcohol more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | 0.466 | 0.324 | 2.069 | 0.150 | 1.593 | 0.845 | 3.005 |
Participatory dialogue | 0.067 | 0.035 | 3.673 | 0.055 | 1.069 | 0.998 | 1.145 |
Behavioral confidence | 0.095 | 0.033 | 8.427 | 0.004 | 1.100 | 1.032 | 1.173 |
Changes in the physical environment | 0.106 | 0.066 | 2.601 | 0.107 | 1.112 | 0.977 | 1.266 |
Comparing Very or Completely Likely with Not at All and Somewhat Likely | 95% CI (LCL, UCL) | ||||||
Variables | B | SE | Wald | p Value | Odd Ratio | LCL | UCL |
Age | 0.007 | 0.012 | 0.275 | 0.600 | 1.007 | 0.982 | 1.032 |
BMI | 0.010 | 0.025 | 0.163 | 0.687 | 1.010 | 0.962 | 1.060 |
Gender: Male (Ref: Female) | −0.221 | 0.350 | 0.400 | 0.527 | 0.801 | 0.403 | 1.592 |
Race: White (Ref: Black) | −0.143 | 0.514 | 0.078 | 0.780 | 0.866 | 0.316 | 2.372 |
Hispanic | −0.043 | 0.576 | 0.006 | 0.940 | 0.958 | 0.310 | 2.961 |
Other | 1.416 | 0.857 | 2.730 | 0.098 | 4.121 | 0.768 | 22.102 |
Marital Status: Never Married (Ref: Married) | 0.344 | 0.468 | 0.540 | 0.462 | 1.411 | 0.564 | 3.531 |
Divorced/Separate/Widow | 0.180 | 0.462 | 0.152 | 0.697 | 1.198 | 0.484 | 2.963 |
Other | 0.658 | 0.623 | 1.116 | 0.291 | 1.931 | 0.570 | 6.547 |
Education: Professional Degree (Ref: Graduate Degree) | 1.279 | 0.940 | 1.853 | 0.173 | 3.593 | 0.570 | 22.654 |
College degree | 0.215 | 0.659 | 0.106 | 0.744 | 1.240 | 0.341 | 4.510 |
Some college/No degree | 0.015 | 0.691 | 0.000 | 0.983 | 1.015 | 0.262 | 3.932 |
High school graduate | 0.229 | 0.698 | 0.107 | 0.743 | 1.257 | 0.320 | 4.934 |
Less than high school | 1.059 | 1.173 | 0.815 | 0.367 | 2.882 | 0.290 | 28.693 |
Community Type: Urban (Ref: Rural) | 0.128 | 0.424 | 0.091 | 0.763 | 1.137 | 0.495 | 2.609 |
Suburban | 0.032 | 0.397 | 0.006 | 0.937 | 1.032 | 0.474 | 2.248 |
Region: Northeast (Ref: Midwest) | 0.129 | 0.578 | 0.050 | 0.823 | 1.138 | 0.366 | 3.537 |
South | −0.399 | 0.426 | 0.879 | 0.348 | 0.671 | 0.291 | 1.545 |
West | −1.085 | 0.517 | 4.413 | 0.036 | 0.338 | 0.123 | 0.930 |
Employment status: Working (Ref: Not Working) | 0.865 | 0.419 | 4.271 | 0.039 | 2.376 | 1.046 | 5.398 |
Religion: Christian (Ref: Non-Christian) | −0.600 | 0.341 | 3.099 | 0.078 | 0.549 | 0.282 | 1.070 |
Income: USD 20,000–50,000 (Ref: Less than USD 19,999) | 0.474 | 0.474 | 1.001 | 0.317 | 1.607 | 0.635 | 4.067 |
USD 50,001–100,000 | −0.079 | 0.521 | 0.023 | 0.879 | 0.924 | 0.333 | 2.566 |
>USD 100,000 | 0.935 | 0.780 | 1.437 | 0.231 | 2.546 | 0.552 | 11.742 |
Do you eat outside of the home: Yes (Ref: No) | −1.345 | 0.428 | 9.876 | 0.002 | 0.260 | 0.113 | 0.603 |
Do you currently use/smoke tobacco more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | 0.123 | 0.357 | 0.119 | 0.730 | 1.131 | 0.562 | 2.276 |
Do you currently drink alcohol more than once a week?: Yes (Ref: No) | −0.006 | 0.375 | 0.000 | 0.988 | 0.995 | 0.477 | 2.075 |
Participatory dialogue | 0.067 | 0.038 | 3.178 | 0.075 | 1.070 | 0.993 | 1.152 |
Behavioral confidence | 0.273 | 0.040 | 47.169 | <0.001 | 1.314 | 1.216 | 1.421 |
Changes in the physical environment | 0.290 | 0.080 | 13.088 | <0.001 | 1.336 | 1.142 | 1.563 |
Comparing Moderately Likely with Not at All and Somewhat Likely | 95% CI (LCL, UCL) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | B | SE | Wald | p Value | Odd Ratio | LCL | UCL |
Age | −0.032 | 0.011 | 8.099 | 0.004 | 0.968 | 0.947 | 0.990 |
BMI | 0.006 | 0.021 | 0.082 | 0.774 | 1.006 | 0.965 | 1.049 |
Gender: Male (Ref: Female) | 0.188 | 0.316 | 0.355 | 0.551 | 1.207 | 0.650 | 2.241 |
Race: White (Ref: Black) | −0.180 | 0.466 | 0.148 | 0.700 | 0.836 | 0.335 | 2.085 |
Hispanic | 0.334 | 0.544 | 0.376 | 0.540 | 1.396 | 0.480 | 4.058 |
Other | 0.700 | 0.701 | 0.997 | 0.318 | 2.014 | 0.510 | 7.954 |
Marital Status: Never Married (Ref: Married) | −0.199 | 0.416 | 0.229 | 0.632 | 0.819 | 0.362 | 1.853 |
Divorced/Separate/Widow | 0.952 | 0.434 | 4.817 | 0.028 | 2.590 | 1.107 | 6.060 |
Other | −0.150 | 0.590 | 0.065 | 0.799 | 0.861 | 0.271 | 2.734 |
Education: Professional Degree (Ref: Graduate Degree) | 2.135 | 0.958 | 4.970 | 0.026 | 8.458 | 1.294 | 55.261 |
College degree | 0.273 | 0.682 | 0.160 | 0.690 | 1.313 | 0.345 | 5.002 |
Some college/No degree | 0.370 | 0.710 | 0.271 | 0.602 | 1.447 | 0.360 | 5.816 |
High school graduate | 0.433 | 0.709 | 0.373 | 0.541 | 1.542 | 0.384 | 6.184 |
Less than high school | 0.823 | 1.013 | 0.661 | 0.416 | 2.278 | 0.313 | 16.579 |
Community Type: Urban (Ref: Rural) | 0.809 | 0.388 | 4.352 | 0.037 | 2.245 | 1.050 | 4.800 |
Suburban | 0.432 | 0.373 | 1.341 | 0.247 | 1.540 | 0.742 | 3.196 |
Region: Northeast (Ref: Midwest) | −0.176 | 0.504 | 0.121 | 0.727 | 0.839 | 0.312 | 2.253 |
South | −0.351 | 0.388 | 0.816 | 0.366 | 0.704 | 0.329 | 1.507 |
West | −1.371 | 0.468 | 8.599 | 0.003 | 0.254 | 0.102 | 0.635 |
Employment status: Working (Ref: Not Working) | 0.344 | 0.381 | 0.817 | 0.366 | 1.410 | 0.669 | 2.974 |
Religion: Christian (Ref: Non-Christian) | −0.253 | 0.302 | 0.698 | 0.403 | 0.777 | 0.429 | 1.405 |
Income: USD 20,000–50,000 (Ref: Less than USD 19,999) | 0.539 | 0.437 | 1.520 | 0.218 | 1.715 | 0.728 | 4.042 |
USD 50,001–100,000 | −0.110 | 0.476 | 0.054 | 0.817 | 0.896 | 0.352 | 2.277 |
>USD 100,000 | −1.158 | 0.776 | 2.229 | 0.135 | 0.314 | 0.069 | 1.437 |
Do you eat outside of the home: Yes (Ref: No) | −1.184 | 0.409 | 8.383 | 0.004 | 0.306 | 0.137 | 0.682 |
Do you currently use/smoke tobacco more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | 0.094 | 0.336 | 0.078 | 0.780 | 1.098 | 0.569 | 2.121 |
Do you currently drink alcohol more than once a week?: Yes (Ref: No) | 0.323 | 0.332 | 0.948 | 0.330 | 1.381 | 0.721 | 2.646 |
Emotional Transformation | 0.216 | 0.073 | 8.726 | 0.003 | 1.241 | 1.075 | 1.433 |
Practice for change | −0.017 | 0.076 | 0.047 | 0.828 | 0.984 | 0.848 | 1.141 |
Change in the Social Environment | 0.247 | 0.063 | 15.605 | <0.001 | 1.280 | 1.133 | 1.447 |
Comparing Very or Completely Likely with Not at All and Somewhat Likely | 95% CI (LCL, UCL) | ||||||
Variables | B | SE | Wald | p Value | Odd Ratio | LCL | UCL |
Age | −0.032 | 0.012 | 6.746 | 0.009 | 0.968 | 0.945 | 0.992 |
BMI | 0.014 | 0.025 | 0.318 | 0.573 | 1.014 | 0.965 | 1.066 |
Gender: Male (Ref: Female) | −0.331 | 0.355 | 0.866 | 0.352 | 0.718 | 0.358 | 1.442 |
Race: White (Ref: Black) | −0.197 | 0.526 | 0.140 | 0.708 | 0.821 | 0.293 | 2.303 |
Hispanic | 0.605 | 0.620 | 0.953 | 0.329 | 1.832 | 0.543 | 6.181 |
Other | 0.490 | 0.804 | 0.372 | 0.542 | 1.633 | 0.338 | 7.897 |
Marital Status: Never Married (Ref: Married) | 0.300 | 0.460 | 0.426 | 0.514 | 1.350 | 0.548 | 3.326 |
Divorced/Separate/Widow | 0.479 | 0.478 | 1.005 | 0.316 | 1.614 | 0.633 | 4.116 |
Other | −0.189 | 0.674 | 0.078 | 0.780 | 0.828 | 0.221 | 3.103 |
Education: Professional Degree (Ref: Graduate Degree) | 1.107 | 1.038 | 1.139 | 0.286 | 3.026 | 0.396 | 23.130 |
College degree | 0.015 | 0.681 | 0.000 | 0.983 | 1.015 | 0.267 | 3.855 |
Some college/No degree | −0.555 | 0.725 | 0.588 | 0.443 | 0.574 | 0.139 | 2.374 |
High school graduate | −0.631 | 0.732 | 0.744 | 0.388 | 0.532 | 0.127 | 2.233 |
Less than high school | −0.943 | 1.196 | 0.622 | 0.430 | 0.389 | 0.037 | 4.061 |
Community Type: Urban (Ref: Rural) | 0.419 | 0.433 | 0.937 | 0.333 | 1.520 | 0.651 | 3.552 |
Suburban | 0.214 | 0.402 | 0.284 | 0.594 | 1.239 | 0.563 | 2.723 |
Region: Northeast (Ref: Midwest) | −0.248 | 0.553 | 0.201 | 0.654 | 0.780 | 0.264 | 2.308 |
South | −0.743 | 0.445 | 2.779 | 0.095 | 0.476 | 0.199 | 1.139 |
West | −1.367 | 0.515 | 7.049 | 0.008 | 0.255 | 0.093 | 0.699 |
Employment status: Working (Ref: Not Working) | 0.015 | 0.413 | 0.001 | 0.972 | 1.015 | 0.452 | 2.278 |
Religion: Christian (Ref: Non-Christian) | −0.351 | 0.337 | 1.087 | 0.297 | 0.704 | 0.364 | 1.362 |
Income: USD 20,000–50,000 (Ref: Less than USD 19,999) | 0.485 | 0.485 | 1.001 | 0.317 | 1.624 | 0.628 | 4.202 |
USD 50,001–100,000 | −0.124 | 0.536 | 0.054 | 0.816 | 0.883 | 0.309 | 2.525 |
>USD 100,000 | −0.350 | 0.771 | 0.206 | 0.650 | 0.705 | 0.155 | 3.195 |
Do you eat outside of the home: Yes (Ref: No) | −1.733 | 0.433 | 15.997 | <0.001 | 0.177 | 0.076 | 0.413 |
Do you currently use/smoke tobacco more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | 0.655 | 0.371 | 3.123 | 0.077 | 1.925 | 0.931 | 3.979 |
Do you currently drink alcohol more than once a week? Yes (Ref: No) | −0.201 | 0.379 | 0.281 | 0.596 | 0.818 | 0.389 | 1.720 |
Emotional Transformation | 0.564 | 0.088 | 41.279 | <0.001 | 1.758 | 1.480 | 2.089 |
Practice for change | 0.086 | 0.082 | 1.110 | 0.292 | 1.090 | 0.929 | 1.279 |
Change in the Social Environment | 0.383 | 0.067 | 33.008 | <0.001 | 1.467 | 1.287 | 1.672 |
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Sharma, M.; Johansen, C.; Batra, R.; Dai, C.-L.; Kapukotuwa, S.; Assoumou, B.; Batra, K. Explaining the Correlates of Eating Outside-of-Home Behavior in a Nationally Representative US Sample Using the Multi-Theory Model of Health Behavior Change: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21010115
Sharma M, Johansen C, Batra R, Dai C-L, Kapukotuwa S, Assoumou B, Batra K. Explaining the Correlates of Eating Outside-of-Home Behavior in a Nationally Representative US Sample Using the Multi-Theory Model of Health Behavior Change: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2024; 21(1):115. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21010115
Chicago/Turabian StyleSharma, Manoj, Christopher Johansen, Ravi Batra, Chia-Liang Dai, Sidath Kapukotuwa, Bertille Assoumou, and Kavita Batra. 2024. "Explaining the Correlates of Eating Outside-of-Home Behavior in a Nationally Representative US Sample Using the Multi-Theory Model of Health Behavior Change: A Cross-Sectional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 21, no. 1: 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21010115