Pesticide Exposure in the Cultivation of Carica papaya L. and Capsicum annuum L. in Rural Areas of Oaxaca, Mexico
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sampling Procedures
2.3. Statistical Data Processing
3. Results
3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics
3.2. Characteristics of Production Systems
3.3. Pests and Diseases in Crops
3.4. Use of Pesticides on Crops
3.5. Use of Pesticide Mixtures
3.6. Knowledge and Behavior in the Use and Management of Pesticides
3.7. Damage to Health from Exposure to Pesticides
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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PPS (n = 25) | CPS (n = 30) | Total (n = 55) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Female/Male (%) * | 0.0/100 | 3.3/96.7 | 1.8/98.2 | X2 = 0.849, p = 0.357 NS |
Can read/Can’t read (%)* | 100/0.0 | 93.3/6.7 | 96.4/3.6 | X2 = 1.730, p = 0.188 NS |
Age (years) ** | 32.1 ± 9.9 (18–54) | 41.9 ± 10.7 (26–62) | 37.5 ± 11.4 (18–62) | t = −3.5, gl = 53, p = 0.001 *** |
Seniority in agricultural work (years) ** | 12.0 ± 6.0 (5–30) | 20.5 ± 9.6 (5–40) | 16.7 ± 9.1 (5–40) | MWU = 571.5, p = 0.001 *** |
Sown agricultural area (hectare) ** | 1.2 ± 0.7 (0.5–3.0) | 0.8 ± 0.5 (0.2–2.0) | 0.9 ± 0.6 (0.2–3.0) | MWU = 230.5, p = 0.011 *** |
Activity | Chili Production System | Papaya Production System |
---|---|---|
Land selection | It is carried out 20 days before sowing, and lands with black clay-sandy soils are identified. | It is carried out a month before the transplant; flat areas with moderate sandy-clay textures are preferred, with little sludge formation and good drainage. |
Seed selection | Pest-resistant plants (strong and large) are selected, and their fruits are cut and left in storage until they are fully ripe. Subsequently, the seeds are extracted and washed, immediately placed in a mosquito net bag for two hours, then spread on a plastic or cardboard surface to finish drying at room temperature. The clean seed is left to rest for approximately three months. | Vigorous plants are selected, and seeds are obtained from their fruits. The fruits are placed in water for one day and subsequently exposed to the sun for three days on a cloth surface, which must be permanently moist to promote roots. The seeds with the most roots are placed in the seedbed. |
Preparation of the seedbed | It is carried out after the first or second rain of the year. On flat land close to the plot where the transplant will be carried out, a furrow 1.5 m wide and 2 m long is formed, and the surface layer is loosened and disinfected with lime, allowing it to rest for 1 to 5 days. Subsequently, the seeds are sown in the furrow, covering it with a plant cover (palm or dry grass) for eight days. Subsequently, the cover is raised to a height of 1 m to protect the seedbed, which is removed after 20 days when there are leaves on the seedlings. The corresponding transplant is carried out between 30 and 40 days after starting the seedling. | The seeds with the best roots are placed in the compartments of the trays (capacity of 200 compartments), which contain a substrate previously mixed with water for propagating seedlings in the greenhouse. They are allowed to grow until the seedlings are strong enough for transplanting. |
Land preparation | Depending on the vegetation type, it may be cleaned with machetes and chainsaws. Some producers fallow the land, and others only harrow it. Then, lime is applied for disinfection. This activity is carried out before the transplant. | Before transplanting, the land must be tilled with the help of a tractor, disc plow, harrows, edger, and trencher. The disc plow loosens the soil and eliminates weeds by incorporating them into the soil. This activity forms mounds, which are removed by harrowing to even out the terrain. Immediately through the edger, the furrows are formed, and the planting is done by transplanting. |
Transplant | In the previously selected land, 2 m wide alleys are made. In the middle of each alley and at a separation of 0.5 m, holes are made using a punch or spoke, where the seedlings previously submerged in a root-promoting solution are placed. This activity occurs in the morning (7:00 to 9:00 a.m.) or afternoon (4:00 to 6:00 p.m.). | One day before transplanting, a soil sealer is applied (to inhibit the growth of weeds in the first 20 days) and watered (to ensure soil moisture) so that the transplant can be carried out the next day. Two people carry out the activity. The first digs holes where he places one or two seedlings, and the second applies a rooting agent and an insecticide. |
Reseeding | After a week after transplanting, the withered plants are replaced. | It consists of replacing those who became ill or did not resist the transplant with new plants. The eliminated plants are placed in a common grave, and lime is added. Replanting is carried out until the plant is five months old. |
Sexing | This activity is not carried out. | Plants are selected according to their reproductive organ. The hermaphrodite plant is preferred. This process is carried out between the third and fourth month of the plant’s life, considering that, if replanting is necessary, the same sexing will also be carried out. |
Irrigation system | The irrigation system is not used since the crop is seasonal. | PVC pipe and drip irrigation tape are installed and connected to a gasoline or electric pumping system. Irrigation begins once the transplant has been carried out. Subsequent irrigation will depend on humidity conditions and is carried out whenever necessary. |
Preparation of trenches | This activity is not carried out. | Three months after the transplant, an agricultural trencher is used to carry out the work. A drainage channel is made between furrows, at a distance of 1.80 m, to form a drain, which serves to drain rainwater and transport the fruit using wheelbarrows to the washing, wallpapering, and stowage area. |
Fertilization | Granular fertilizers are applied manually, and foliar fertilizers are applied by spraying. Five fertilizations are carried out during the cycle. In the first three days after transplanting (dat), various products are used: rooting agents by spraying, granules, and foliar. The second is achieved with foliar (5 dat); the third (20 dat) and fourth (30 or 40 dat) with granules; and the fifth with foliar (40 or 45 dat). Once the plants reach maturity and begin fruit production, foliar applications are applied twice per cut: the first when the producer considers it appropriate, and the second 10 days after the first application. | Two types of fertilization are carried out: soluble and granulated, and both are repeated every 20 days starting the month after transplanting. The first is the mixture of soluble fertilizers prepared in a 200 L drum, connected by hoses, and dispersed through drip irrigation to the crop. The second consists of the manual application of different solid fertilizers, which are mixed in a bucket, and the producer, using the palm of his hand, takes a portion and places it next to the base of each plant. Each producer chooses the fertilizer to apply based on their experience. |
Pesticide application | Insecticides are applied from the seedling stage. At 15 dat, different herbicides are used. During the crop’s growth and development stage, insecticides and fungicides are applied. From the fourth application of fertilizers, they are regularly mixed with various pesticides. Spray pumps and/or motor pumps are commonly used, depending on the producer’s economic capacity. | Herbicides are applied at least every month throughout the life of the plant. Insecticides are used thrice a month from the second month to the tenth or eleventh months of life. For fungicides, they are applied from the third month of life (beginning of flowering) until the end of the cycle. Insecticides and fungicides are generally used in combination with foliar fertilizers, hormones, and bactericides. Their application is intensified during the flowering season (between the third and sixth months). When the plants are 8 to 9 months old, fumigation is carried out with motor or manual spray pumps. |
Court | The first cut is made at 45 or 50 dat, subsequently every 20 days, up to a maximum of 3 or 4 cuts depending on the strength achieved in the plants with fertilization and pest control. This activity is carried out manually, and day laborers are generally hired. The harvest ends in January. | It is carried out after seven months of the plant’s life. The cutting is completed by hand. The fruit is placed in wheelbarrows (capacity approx. 150 kg) and transferred to the washing area, where it is immersed in a mixture of fungicides and dispersants. After washing, the fruit is wrapped in paper and stowed in a truck. The cut has a period of 5 to 6 months. |
Commercialization | The product is transported to the community of Betania, municipality of Tuxtepec, where it is sold to intermediaries from Puebla or CDMX. The price per kg ranges between MXN 5 and 10. | The product is sold mainly to intermediaries established in the town, who transport it to the main markets of Puebla and CDMX. The price per kg ranges between MXN 6 and 11. |
Final destination of post-harvest waste | At the end of the cycle, the plants are already too contaminated. The crop is left wholly abandoned for a month so that the weeds can grow. Then, the land is cleaned, and all the waste is burned. This strategy is used to prepare the land for the following agricultural cycle. | At the end of the cycle, the plants are approximately 2 m high, very sick, and no longer have enough foliage to cover the fruit. Therefore, they are cut down with a machete, and the stubble and remaining fruits are left on the plot to feed the livestock. Finally, the land is allowed to rest for approximately one year. some producers plant sorghum and/or corn for self-consumption during that time interval. |
January | February | March | April | May | June | July | August | September | October | November | December |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Land selection | Seed selection | ||||||||||
Land preparation | |||||||||||
Preparation of the seedbed | |||||||||||
Insecticide application | |||||||||||
Transplant | |||||||||||
Fertilization (1st, 2nd and 3rd) | |||||||||||
Herbicide application | |||||||||||
Fertilization (4th) | |||||||||||
Application of insecticides and fungicides | |||||||||||
First cut | |||||||||||
Fertilization (5th) | |||||||||||
Second cut | |||||||||||
The third or fourth cut | |||||||||||
Commercialization | Commercialization | ||||||||||
Harvest term | The final destination of the plant | ||||||||||
Land selection | |||||||||||
Seed selection | |||||||||||
Preparation of the seedbed | |||||||||||
Land preparation | |||||||||||
Irrigation system installation | |||||||||||
Transplant | |||||||||||
Irrigation | Irrigation | ||||||||||
Fertilization | Fertilization | ||||||||||
Herbicide application | Herbicide application | ||||||||||
Reseeding | Reseeding | ||||||||||
Ditched | |||||||||||
Application of insecticides and fungicides | |||||||||||
Sexing | |||||||||||
Court | |||||||||||
Commercialization | |||||||||||
The final destination of the plant |
TC | Insecticides Number AI (CP) | Herbicides Number AI (CP) | Fungicides Number AI (CP) | Bactericides Number AI (CP) | Total Number AI (CP) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PPS | CPS | PPS | CPS | PPS | CPS | PPS | CPS | PPS | CPS | |
I | 1 (1) | 2 (2) | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 (1) | 2 (2) |
II | 4 (4) | 5 (5) | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 4 (4) | 5 (5) |
III | 4 (4) | 4 (4) | 2 (6) | 2 (7) | -- | -- | -- | -- | 6 (10) | 6 (11) |
IV | 5 (6) | 11 (16) | 2 (4) | 2 (7) | 11 (13) | 7 (8) | -- | -- | 18 (23) | 20 (31) |
V | -- | 1 (1) | -- | -- | -- | 1 (1) | 2 (1) | 2 (1) | 2 (1) | 4 (3) |
Total | 14 (15) | 23 (28) | 4 (10) | 4 (14) | 11 (13) | 8 (9) | 2 (1) | 2 (1) | 31 (39) | 37 (52) |
Active Ingredient | Chemical Group | Use Class (a) | TC (b) | Number of Users Using the Commercial Product (PPS: n = 25/CPS: n = 30) | HHP List (c) | Total AI Bans World- Wide (d) | % of Users | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PPS n = 25 | CPS n = 30 | |||||||
Paraquat * | Bipyridyl | H | III | Gramoxone (18/23) Cuproquat (1/--) Mata todo (3/--) Lumbrequat (3/--) Ojiva (1/--) Paraquat (--/9) Gramoxil (--/8) Diabloquat (--/1) Dragocson (--/1) Cerillo (--/1) | 1, 4 | 58 | 100 | 100 |
2, 4-D | Chlorophenoxy (phenoxy acetic acid) | H | III | Herbipol (2/1) | 2 | 5 | 8.0 | 3.3 |
Glyphosate | Phosphonomethylglycine (phosphonate) | H | IV | Glyphosate (20/16) Machete (2/--) Rondo (5/--) Faena (--/3) Lafam (--/3) Velfosato (--/3) | 2 | 4 | 92.0 | 83.3 |
Ammonium glufosinate | Organophosphate | H | IV | Finale (5/9) Tarang (--/10) Glufosinate (--/1) | 2 | 29 | 20.0 | 66.6 |
Aluminum phosphide | Inorganic phosphide | I | I | Fosfusan (--/4) | 1, 3 | 2 | -- | 13.3 |
Methyl parathion | Organophosphate | I | I | Foley (6/4) | 1, 4 | -- | 24.0 | 13.3 |
Carbofuran | Carbamate | I | II | Furadan (10/3) | 1, 3, 4 | 87 | 40.0 | 9.9 |
Endosulfan | Organochlorine | I | II | Thiodan (2/--) | 1, 4 | 130 | 8.0 | -- |
Fipronil | Phenylpyrazole | I | II | Regent 4 SC (--/3) | 3 | 38 | -- | 9.9 |
Methamidophos * | Organophosphate | I | II | Tamarón (1/1) | 1, 3, 4 | 109 | 4.0 | 3.3 |
Methomyl | Carbamate | I | II | Lannate (19/7) | 1, 3 | 47 | 76.0 | 23.3 |
Oxamyl | Carbamate | I | II | Vydate (--/2) | 1, 3 | 5 | -- | 6.6 |
Bifenthrin | Pyrethroid | I | III | Talstar técnico (4/--) | 2, 3 | 30 | 16.0 | -- |
Chlorpyrifos ethyl | Organophosphate | I | III | Lorsban 50 W (--/2) | 2, 3 | 39 | -- | 6.6 |
Dimethoate | Organophosphate | I | III | Rogor (2/--) | 3 | 3 | 8.0 | -- |
Lambda-cyhalothrin | Pyrethroid | I | III | Kirio (2/--) | 1, 3 | -- | 8.0 | -- |
Lambda-cyhalothrin + Tiametoxam | Pyrethroid/Neonicotinoid | I | III/IV | Engeo (--/16) | 1, 3/3 | --/28 | -- | 53.3 |
Permethrin | Pyrethroid | I | III | Ambush 340 (3/--) Permethrin (--/1) | 2, 3 | 33 | 12.0 | 3.3 |
Thiodicarb + Imidacloprid | Carbamate/Neonicotinoid | I | III/IV | Semevin xtra (--/2) | 2, 3/3 | 33/29 | -- | 6.6 |
Abamectin | Avermectin | I | IV | Abamectin 1.8% (--/6) Agrimec (--/2) Agriver (--/1) Lucatina (--/1) | 1, 3 | -- | -- | 33.3 |
Abamectin + Spirodiclofen | Avermectin/Derived from tetronic acid | I | IV/V | Envidor speed (--/2) | 1, 3/2 | --/29 | -- | 6.6 |
Acetamiprid | Neonicotinoid | I | IV | Rescate (1/--) | -- | -- | 4.0 | -- |
Cypermethrin | Pyrethroid | I | IV | Crucial 20 CE (1/--) Arrivo (--/3) | 3 | 29 | 4.0 | 9.9 |
Cyromazine | Triazine | I | IV | Trigard (--/3) | -- | -- | -- | 29.9 |
Dicofol * | Organochlorine | I | IV | AK-20 (--/3) | 4 | 52 | -- | 9.9 |
Flupyradifuran | Butenolide | I | IV | Sivanto (--/1) | 3 | -- | -- | 3.3 |
Imidacloprid | Neonicotinoid | I | IV | Confidor (3/22) Bration (1/--) Picador (--/2) | 3 | 29 | 16.0 | 73.3 |
Imidacloprid + Beta-cyfluthrin | Neonicotinoid/Pyrethroid | I | IV/IV | Muralla Max (5/13) | 3/1, 3 | 29/30 | 20.0 | 43.3 |
Malathion | Organophosphate | I | IV | Malathion (8/--) | 2, 3 | 32 | 32.0 | -- |
Spiromesifen | Derived from tetronic acid | I | IV | Oberón (--/8) | -- | -- | -- | 26.6 |
Spirotetramac | Derived from tetronic acid | I | IV | Movento 240 (--/2) | -- | -- | -- | 6.6 |
Spirodiclofen | Derived from tetronic acid | I | V | Envidor (--/3) | 2 | 29 | -- | 9.9 |
Azoxystrobin | Strobirulins | F | IV | Amistar (10/--) | -- | -- | 40.0 | -- |
Azoxystrobin + Difeconazole | Strobirulins + Triazole | F | IV/IV | Amistar Gold (1/--) | --/-- | --/1 | 4.0 | -- |
Benomyl | Benzimidazole | F | IV | Promyl (--/4) | 2, 3 | 39 | -- | 13.3 |
Captan | Carboxamide | F | IV | Captan 50 WP (11/--) Captan (--/10) | 2 | 6 | 44.0 | 33.3 |
Chlorothalonil | Chloronitriles | F | IV | Clorimex 500 F (2/--) | 1, 2 | 34 | 8.0 | -- |
Cymoxanil + Mancozeb | Cyanoacetamide oxime + Dithiocarbamate | F | IV/IV | Curzate M8 (--/2) | --/2 | --/31 | -- | 6.6 |
Carbendacim | Bencimidazole | F | IV | Prozycar (--/1) | 2 | 34 | -- | 3.3 |
Mancozeb | Dithiocarbamate | F | IV | Manzate (19/17) | 2 | 31 | 76.0 | 56.6 |
Metalaxyl | Phenylamide | F | IV | Metalaxyl (8/4) Tokat 240 (3/--) | -- | 1 | 44.0 | 13.3 |
Metalaxyl + Chlorothalonil | Phenylamide/Chloronitriles | F | IV/IV | Malakal (2/--) | --/1, 2 | 1/34 | 8.0 | -- |
Metalaxyl-M + Mancozeb | Phenylamide/Dithiocarbamate | F | IV/IV | Ridomil Gold MZ 68 (--/5) | --/2 | 1/31 | -- | 16.6 |
Prochloraz | Imidazole | F | IV | Sportak 45 CE (12/--) | -- | 29 | 48.0 | -- |
Pyraclostrobin + Boscalid | Strobirulin/Carboxamide | F | IV/IV | Cabrio C (1/--) Cabrio (1/--) | --/-- | --/-- | 8.0 | -- |
Tebuconazole | Triazole | F | IV | Tebuzan (--/4) | 1, 2 | 1 | -- | 13.3 |
Trifloxystrobin | Strobirulins | F | IV | Tega 500 SC (1/--) | -- | -- | 4.0 | -- |
Fosetyl Al | Organophosphate | F | V | Aliette (--/1) | -- | -- | -- | 3.3 |
Streptomycin + Oxytetracycline | Antibiotic/Antibiotic | B | V/V | Agri-mycin 100 (--/4) | --/-- | 30/29 | -- | 13.3 |
Streptomycin + oxytetracycline + Copper oxychloride | Antibiotic/Antibiotic/Inorganic copper compounds | B/B/F | V/V/IV | Agrimycu 500 (1/--) | --/--/-- | 30/29/-- | 4.0 | -- |
Oxytetracycline | Antibiotic | B | V | Terramycin 5% (--/1) | -- | 29 | -- | 3.3 |
TC II AI (Type of Pesticide) Commercial Product | TC III AI (Type of Pesticide) Commercial Product (No. of Users) | TC IV AI (Type of Pesticide) Commercial Product (No. of Users) | % of Users |
---|---|---|---|
Papaya Production System (n = 25) | |||
Carbofuran (I) + Furadan + Furadan + | Paraquat (H) Matatodo (2) Gramoxone (1) | 12.0 | |
Methamidophos (I) + Tamarón + | Paraquat (H) Gramoxone (1) | 4.0 | |
Dimethoate (I) + Paraquat (H) Rogor + Gramoxone (1) | 4.0 | ||
Paraquat (H) + Lambda-cyhalothrin (I) Gramoxone + Kirio (2) | 8.0 | ||
Paraquat (H) + Ojiva + Gramoxone + | Malathion (I) Malathion (1) Malathion (3) | 12.0 | |
Lambda-cyhalothrin (I) + Kirio + Kirio + | Glyphosate (H) Glyphosate (2) Rondo (2) | 16.0 | |
Glyphosate (H) + Malathion (I) Rondo + Malathion (2) Glyphosate + Malathion (2) | 16.0 | ||
Carbofuran (I) + Furadan + | Glyphosate (H) Glyphosate (3) | 12.0 | |
Carbofuran (I) + Furadan + | Ammonium glufosinate (H) Finale (2) | 8.0 | |
Methamidophos (I) + Tamarón + | Dimethoate (I) Rogor (1) | 4.0 | |
Methomyl (I) + Lannate + | Prochloraz (F) Sportak 45 CE (6) | 24.0 | |
Methomyl (I) + Lannate + | Pyraclostrobin/Boscalid (F) Cabrio (1) | 4.0 | |
Imidacloprid + Beta-cyfluthrin (I) + Captan (F) Muralla Max 300 + Captan (1) | 4.0 | ||
Prochloraz (F) + Mancozeb (F) Sportak 45 CE + Manzate (3) | 12.0 | ||
Metalaxil (F) + Mancozeb (F) Metalaxil + Manzate (1) | 4.0 | ||
Chlorothalonil (F) + Mancozeb (F) Clorimex 500 F + Manzate (1) | 4.0 | ||
Captan (F) + Mancozeb (F) Captán + Manzate (3) | 12.0 | ||
Trifloxystrobin (F) + Prochloraz (F) Tega 500 SC + Sportak 45 CE (1) | 4.0 | ||
Captan (F) + Pyraclostrobin/Boscalid (F) Captán + Cabrio C (2) | 8.0 | ||
Mancozeb (F) + Pyraclostrobin/Boscalid (F) Manzate + Cabrio (1) | 4.0 | ||
Chili Production System (n = 30) | |||
Ammonium glufosinate (H) + Glyphosate (H) Finale + Velfosato (1) | 3.3 | ||
Paraquat (H) + Gramoxone + Paraquat + Dragocson + | Ammonium glufosinate (H) Fínale (1) Tarang (3) Tarang (1) | 16.6 | |
Paraquat (H) + Gramoxone + Gramocil + Gramoxone + Paraquat + | Glyphosate (H) Glyphosate (1) Lafam (1) Faena (1) Glyphosate (1) | 13.3 | |
Spiromesifen (I) + Imidacloprid (I) Oberon + Confidor (1) | 3.3 | ||
Abamectin (I) + Benomilo (F) Abamectin + Promyl (1) | 3.3 | ||
Captan (F) + Benomyl (F) Captan + Promyl (1) | 3.3 | ||
Carbofuran (I) + Furadan + | Mancozeb (F) + Carbendacim (F) Manzate + Prozicar (1) | 3.3 | |
Mancozeb (F) + Benomyl (F) Mancozeb + Promyl (1) | 3.3 | ||
Mancozeb (F) + Streptomycin + Oxytetracycline (B) Mancozeb + Agri-mycin 100 (1) | 3.3 | ||
Mancozeb (F) + Metalaxyl (F) + Benomyl (F) Manzate + Metalaxyl + Promyl (1) | 3.3 | ||
Chlorpyrifos ethyl (I) + Lorsban 50 W + | Mancozeb (F) Manzate (1) | 3.3 | |
Lambda-cyhalothrin (I)/Tiametoxam (I) + Benomyl (F) Engeo + Promyl (1) | 3.3 | ||
Fipronil (I) + Regent 4 SC + | Lambda-cyhalothrin (I)/Tiametoxam (I) Engeo (1) | 3.3 |
PPS % (n = 25) | CPS % (n = 30) | |
---|---|---|
1. Have you received training in the use and management of pesticides? | 40.0 | 32.0 |
2. Did you learn how to use pesticides from professionals? | 10.0 | 0.0 |
3. Does the person who sells you pesticides tell you how to use them? | 66.7 | 76.0 |
4. When you buy a pesticide for the first time, do you read the label? | 83.3 | 36.0 |
5. Do you know what the colors on pesticide labels mean? | 0.0 | 12.0 |
6. When preparing the pesticide for fumigation, do you follow the instructions on the label? | 30.0 | 24.0 |
7. Do you use personal protective equipment to cover your hands when preparing pesticides for fumigation? | 13.3 | 4.0 |
8. Are there no spills or splashes when preparing the pesticide for fumigation? | 26.7 | 8.0 |
9. Do you wash your hands after preparing the pesticide for fumigation? | 96.7 | 100.0 |
10. Is your spray pump in good condition? | 6.7 | 100.0 |
11. When the pump nozzle becomes clogged, do you use any tool to unclog it? | 6.7 | 12.0 |
12. After spraying, do you wash your hands before eating or doing any other activity? | 90.0 | 96.0 |
13. Do you bathe after fumigating? | 96.7 | 96.0 |
14. Do you use special clothing to fumigate? | 0.0 | 0.0 |
15. Do you use face masks when fumigating? | 0.0 | 0.0 |
16. When it is very windy, do you avoid applying pesticides? | 80.0 | 68.0 |
17. Do you wash the equipment when you finish fumigating? | 26.7 | 52.0 |
18. Do you store pesticides in a particular place outside your home? | 0.0 | 60.0 |
19. Do you place empty pesticide containers in special containers? | 0.0 | 76.0 |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Bernardino-Hernández, H.U.; Gallardo-García, Y.; Vargas-Valencia, G.; Zapién-Martínez, A.; Sánchez-Cruz, G.; Reyes-Velasco, L.; Cueva-Villanueva, J.Á.; Hernández-García, E.; Vargas-Arzola, J.; Torres-Aguilar, H. Pesticide Exposure in the Cultivation of Carica papaya L. and Capsicum annuum L. in Rural Areas of Oaxaca, Mexico. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, 1061. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081061
Bernardino-Hernández HU, Gallardo-García Y, Vargas-Valencia G, Zapién-Martínez A, Sánchez-Cruz G, Reyes-Velasco L, Cueva-Villanueva JÁ, Hernández-García E, Vargas-Arzola J, Torres-Aguilar H. Pesticide Exposure in the Cultivation of Carica papaya L. and Capsicum annuum L. in Rural Areas of Oaxaca, Mexico. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2024; 21(8):1061. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081061
Chicago/Turabian StyleBernardino-Hernández, Héctor Ulises, Yael Gallardo-García, Gerardo Vargas-Valencia, Arturo Zapién-Martínez, Gabriel Sánchez-Cruz, Leobardo Reyes-Velasco, José Ángel Cueva-Villanueva, Ericel Hernández-García, Jaime Vargas-Arzola, and Honorio Torres-Aguilar. 2024. "Pesticide Exposure in the Cultivation of Carica papaya L. and Capsicum annuum L. in Rural Areas of Oaxaca, Mexico" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 21, no. 8: 1061. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081061