Cancer Incidence of 2,4-D Production Workers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
3. Results and Discussion
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
- Conflict of InterestThe authors are employees of The Dow Chemical Company.
References
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Registration Eligibility Decision for 2,4-D. Available online: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status_page_d.htm accessed on 14 July 2010.
- World Health Organization, WHO Pesticide Residues in Food—1996. Evaluation. Volume Part II, In Toxicological; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 1997.
- Charles, JM; Cunny, HC; Wilson, RD; Bus, JS; Ivett, JL; Murli, H; Gollapudi, B. In vivo Micronucleus Assays on 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid and its Derivatives. Mutat Res 1999, 444, 227–234. [Google Scholar]
- Gollapudi, BB; Charles, JM; Linscombe, VA; Day, SJ; Bus, JS. Evaluation of the genotoxicity of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and its derivatives in mammalian cell cultures. Mutat Res 1999, 444, 217–225. [Google Scholar]
- Charles, JM; Cunny, HC; Wilson, RC; Bus, JS; Lawlor, TE; Cifone, MA; Fellows, M; Gollapudi, B. Ames Assays and Unscheduled DNA Synthesis Assays on 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid and its Derivatives. Mutat Res 1999, 444, 207–216. [Google Scholar]
- Hoar, SK; Blair, A; Holmes, FF; Boysen, CD; Robel, RJ; Hoover, R; Fraumeni, JF. Agricultural herbicide use and risk of lymphoma and soft-tissue sarcoma. J Am Med Assoc 1986, 256, 1141–1147. [Google Scholar]
- Garabrant, DH; Philbert, MA. Review of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) epidemiology and toxicology. Crit Rev Toxicol 2002, 32, 233–257. [Google Scholar]
- Bond, GG; Wetterstoem, NH; Roush, GJ; McLaren, EA; Lipps, TE; Cook, RR. Cause specific mortality among employees engaged in the manufactures, formulation, or package of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and related salts. Br J Ind Med 1988, 45, 98–105. [Google Scholar]
- Bloemen, LJ; Mandel, JS; Bond, GG; Pollock, AF; Vitek, RP; Cook, RR. An update on mortality among chemical workers potentially exposed to the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and its derivatives. J Occup Med 1993, 35, 1208–1212. [Google Scholar]
- Burns, CJ; Beard, KK; Cartmill, JB. Mortality in chemical workers potentially exposed to 2,4-dichlorphenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) 1945–94: An update. Occup Environ Med 2001, 58, 24–30. [Google Scholar]
- Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results. Cancer stat fact sheet on non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Available online: http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/nhl.html accessed on 4 August 2006.
- Burns, CJ; Cartmill, JB; Chau, M. Cause-specific mortality among Michigan employees of a chemical company: 1940–1994. J Occup Environ Med 2002, 44, 168–175. [Google Scholar]
- Buchanich, JM; Youk, AO; Marsh, GM; Bornemann, Z; Lacey, SE; Kennedy, KJ; Hancock, RP; Esmen, NA; Lieberman, FS. Methodological issues in a retrospective cancer incidence study. Am J Epidemiol 2009, 170, 112–119. [Google Scholar]
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Statistical methods in cancer research. Volume 2, In The design and analysis of cohort studies; Breslow, NE; Day, NE (Eds.) International Agency for Research Cancer: Lyon, France, 1987; p. 97.
- Hernberg, S. International Agency for Research on Cancer. In Monographs, Some Halogenated Hydrocarbons and Pesticide Exposures; World Health Organization: Lyon, France, 1986. [Google Scholar]
- Kogevinas, M; Becher, H; Benn, T; Bertazzi, PA; Boffetta, P. Cancer mortality in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, and dioxin. Am J Epidemiol 1997, 145, 1061–1075. [Google Scholar]
- Lynge, E. Cancer incidence in Danish phenoxy herbicide workers, 1947–1993. Environ Health Perspect 1998, 106, 683–688. [Google Scholar]
- Fleming, LE; Bean, JA; Rudolph, M; Hamilton, K. Cancer incidence in a cohort of licensed pesticide applicators in Florida. J Occup Environ Med 1999, 41, 279–288. [Google Scholar]
- Boers, D; Portengen, L; Bas Bueno-de-Mesquita, H; Heederik, D; Vermeulen, R. Cause-specific mortality of Dutch chlorophenoxy herbicide manufacturing workers. Occup Environ Med 2010, 67, 24–31. [Google Scholar]
- De Roos, AJ; Zahm, SH; Cantor, KP; Weisenburger, DD; Holmes, FF; Burmeister, LF; Blair, A. Integrative assessment of multiple pesticides as risk factors for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma among men. Occup Environ Med 2003, 60, E11. [Google Scholar]
- Jemal, A; Siegel, R; Xu, J; Ward, E. Cancer statistics, 2010. CA: Cancer J Clin 2010, 60, 277–300. [Google Scholar]
- Band, PR; Abanto, Z; Bart, J; Lang, B; Fang, R; Gallagher, RP; Le, ND. Prostate cancer risk and exposure to pesticides in British Columbia farmers. Prostate 2011, 71, 168–183. [Google Scholar]
- Mink, PJ; Adami, H; Trichopoulos, D; Britton, NL; Mandel, JS. Pesticides and prostate cancer: a review of epidemiologic studies with specific agricultural exposure information. Eur J Cancer Prev 2008, 17, 97–110. [Google Scholar]
- MacLennan, PA; Delzell, E; Sathiakumar, N. Cancer incidence among triazine herbicide manufacturing workers. J Occup Environ Med 2002, 44, 1048–1058. [Google Scholar]
- Alavanja, MCR; Samanic, C; Dosemeci, M; Lubin, J; Tarone, R; Lynch, CF; Knott, C; Thomas, K; Hoppin, JA; Barker, J; et al. Use of agricultural pesticides and prostate cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 157, 800–814. [Google Scholar]
- Price, B. Analysis of current trends in United States mesothelioma incidence. Am J Epidemiol 1997, 145, 211–218. [Google Scholar]
- Ott, MG; Townsend, JC; Fishbeck, WA; Langner, RA. Mortality among individuals occupationally exposed to benzene. Arch Environ Health 1978, 3, 3–10. [Google Scholar]
- Collins, JJ; Bodner, K; Aylward, LL; Wilken, M; Bodnar, CM. Mortality rates among trichlorophenol workers with exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Am J Epidemiol 2009, 170, 501–506. [Google Scholar]
- Collins, JJ; Bodner, K; Aylward, LL; Wilken, M; Swaen, G; Budinsky, R; Rowlands, C; Bodnar, CM. Mortality rates among workers exposed to dioxins in the manufacture of pentachlorophenol. J Occup Environ Med 2009, 51, 1212–1219. [Google Scholar]
- Alexander, DD; Mink, PJ; Adami, HO; Chang, ET; Cole, P; Mandel, JS; Trichopoulos, D. The non-Hodgkin lymphoma: A review of the epidemiologic literature. Int J Cancer 2007, 120, 1–39. [Google Scholar]
- Burstyn, J. The ghost of methods past: exposure assessment versus job-exposure matrix studies. Occup Environ Med 2011, 68, 2–3. [Google Scholar]
- Harris, SH; Sass-Kortsak, AM; Corey, PN; Purdham, JT. Pesticide exposures in professional turf applicators, job titles, and task performed: Implications of exposure measurement error for epidemiologic study design and interpretation of results. Am J Ind Med 2005, 48, 205–216. [Google Scholar]
- Blair, A; Tarone, R; Sandler, D; Lynch, CF; Rowland, A; Wintersteen, W; Steen, WC; Samanic, C; Dosemeci, M; Alavanja, MC. Reliability of reporting on life-style and agricultural factors by a sample of participants in the Agricultural Health Study from Iowa. Epidemiology 2002, 13, 94–99. [Google Scholar]
- Knopp, D. Assessment of exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the chemical industry; results of a five year biological monitoring study. Occup Environ Med 1994, 51, 152–159. [Google Scholar]
- Alexander, BH; Mandel, JS; Baker, BA; Burns, CJ; Bartels, MJ; Acquavella, JF; Gustin, C. Biomonitoring of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid exposure and dose in farm families. Environ Health Perspect 2007, 115, 370–376. [Google Scholar]
- Thomas, KW; Dosemeci, M; Hoppin, JA; Sheldon, LS; Croghan, CW; Gordon, SM; Jones, ML; Reynolds, SJ; Raymer, JH; Akland, GG; et al. Urinary biomarker, dermal, and air measurement results for 2,4-D and chlorpyrifos farm applicators in the Agricultural Health Study. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2010, 20, 119–134. [Google Scholar]
- Charles, JM; Bond, DM; Jeffries, TK; Yano, BL; Stott, WT; Johnson, KA; Cunny, HC; Wilson, RD; Bus, JS. Chronic dietary toxicity/oncogenicity studies on 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in rodents. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1996, 33, 166–172. [Google Scholar]
Age at start of follow-up | People | % |
---|---|---|
19–29 | 118 | 9.4 |
30–39 | 345 | 27.5 |
40–49 | 304 | 24.2 |
50–59 | 245 | 19.5 |
60–69 | 196 | 15.6 |
70+ | 48 | 3.8 |
Total | 1256 | |
Period of hire | ||
<1960 | 422 | 33.6 |
1960–1985 | 514 | 40.9 |
>1985 | 320 | 25.5 |
Total | 1256 | |
Race | ||
White | 1208 | 96.2 |
Black | 23 | 1.8 |
Hispanic | 22 | 1.8 |
American Indian | 3 | 0.2 |
Total | 1256 |
Cohort 1 | Cohort 2 | Cohort 3 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 1316, PY = 25,267 | N = 1256, PY = 23,354 | N = 1108, PY 18,897 | ||||||||||
Cancer | Obs | Exp | SIR | 95% CI | Obs | Exp | SIR | 95% CI | Obs | Exp | SIR | 95% CI |
All Cancer | 246 | 305.85 | 0.80 | 0.71–0.91 | 244 | 276.08 | 0.88 | 0.78–1.00 | 211 | 219.55 | 0.96 | 0.84–1.10 |
Lip, oral and pharynx | 8 | 8.96 | 0.89 | 0.38–1.76 | 8 | 8.14 | 0.98 | 0.42–1.94 | 7 | 6.43 | 1.09 | 0.44–2.24 |
Stomach | 5 | 5.21 | 0.96 | 0.31–2.24 | 4 | 4.70 | 0.85 | 0.23–2.18 | 3 | 3.74 | 0.80 | 0.16–2.34 |
Colon | 17 | 23.36 | 0.73 | 0.42–1.17 | 17 | 21.03 | 0.81 | 0.47–1.29 | 16 | 16.76 | 0.95 | 0.55–1.55 |
Rectum | 9 | 10.70 | 0.84 | 0.38–1.60 | 9 | 9.67 | 0.93 | 0.42–1.77 | 6 | 7.68 | 0.78 | 0.29–1.70 |
Pancreas | 2 | 6.64 | 0.30 | 0.03–1.09 | 2 | 5.99 | 0.33 | 0.04–1.21 | 2 | 4.76 | 0.42 | 0.05–1.52 |
Other GI and Digestive | 8 | 10.91 | 0.73 | 0.32–1.44 | 8 | 9.86 | 0.81 | 0.35–1.60 | 8 | 7.82 | 1.02 | 0.44–2.02 |
Larynx | 5 | 4.96 | 1.01 | 0.32–2.35 | 5 | 4.49 | 1.11 | 0.36–2.60 | 4 | 3.55 | 1.13 | 0.30–2.88 |
Lung and Bronchus | 41 | 54.51 | 0.75 | 0.54–1.02 | 40 | 49.15 | 0.81 | 0.58–1.11 | 36 | 39.04 | 0.92 | 0.65–1.28 |
Other Respiratory * | 5 | 1.46 | 3.42 | 1.10–7.99 | 5 | 1.32 | 3.79 | 1.22–8.84 | 5 | 1.05 | 4.76 | 1.53–11.11 |
Bone and soft tissue | 1 | 1.70 | 0.59 | 0.01–3.27 | 1 | 1.54 | 0.65 | 0.01–3.61 | 1 | 1.24 | 0.81 | 0.01–4.49 |
Melanoma of skin | 9 | 9.34 | 0.96 | 0.44–1.83 | 9 | 8.50 | 1.06 | 0.48–2.01 | 8 | 6.77 | 1.18 | 0.51–2.33 |
Breast | 1 | 0.66 | 1.52 | 0.02–8.43 | 1 | 0.60 | 1.67 | 0.02–9.27 | 0 | 0.47 | 0 | |
Prostate gland | 62 | 93.44 | 0.66 | 0.51–0.85 | 62 | 84.11 | 0.74 | 0.57–0.94 | 51 | 66.86 | 0.76 | 0.57–1.00 |
Other genital * | 3 | 1.87 | 1.60 | 0.32–4.69 | 3 | 1.74 | 1.72 | 0.35–5.04 | 3 | 1.44 | 2.08 | 0.42–6.09 |
Urinary bladder | 22 | 21.73 | 1.01 | 0.63–1.53 | 22 | 19.57 | 1.12 | 0.70–1.70 | 19 | 15.59 | 1.22 | 0.73–1.90 |
Kidney and renal pelvis | 8 | 9.14 | 0.88 | 0.38–1.72 | 8 | 8.29 | 0.97 | 0.42–1.90 | 5 | 6.57 | 0.76 | 0.25–1.78 |
Other urinary * | 3 | 0.93 | 3.23 | 0.65–9.43 | 3 | 0.84 | 3.57 | 0.72–10.44 | 3 | 0.67 | 4.48 | 0.90–13.08 |
Brain and other CNS | 3 | 3.78 | 0.79 | 0.16–2.32 | 3 | 3.43 | 0.87 | 0.17–2.54 | 3 | 2.75 | 1.09 | 0.22–3.19 |
Hodgkin’s disease | 1 | 1.03 | 0.97 | 0.01–5.40 | 1 | 0.95 | 1.05 | 0.01–5.86 | 1 | 0.77 | 1.30 | 0.02–7.23 |
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma | 14 | 11.34 | 1.23 | 0.67–2.07 | 14 | 10.27 | 1.36 | 0.74–2.29 | 14 | 8.18 | 1.71 | 0.93–2.87 |
Multiple myeloma | 2 | 3.52 | 0.57 | 0.06–2.05 | 2 | 3.17 | 0.63 | 0.07–2.28 | 2 | 2.52 | 0.79 | 0.09–2.87 |
Leukemias | 7 | 8.04 | 0.87 | 0.35–1.79 | 7 | 7.25 | 0.96 | 0.39–1.98 | 5 | 5.79 | 0.86 | 0.28–2.02 |
All other | 10 | 12.63 | 0.79 | 0.38–1.46 | 10 | 11.42 | 0.88 | 0.42–1.61 | 9 | 9.11 | 0.99 | 0.45–1.88 |
Exposure measure | People | Observed | Expected | SIR | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Duration (years) | |||||
<1 | 770 | 7 | 6.50 | 1.08 | 0.43–2.22 |
1–4.99 | 338 | 3 | 2.47 | 1.21 | 0.25–3.55 |
5+ | 148 | 4 | 1.30 | 3.08 * | 0.84–7.88 |
Intensity x duration (exposure years) | |||||
<1 | 1001 | 9 | 7.25 | 1.24 | 0.57–2.36 |
1–4.99 | 149 | 2 | 1.63 | 1.23 | 0.15–4.43 |
5+ | 106 | 3 | 1.39 | 2.16 * | 0.45–6.31 |
Decade of Hire | |||||
1945–1949 | 181 | 4 | 2.54 | 1.57 | 0.43–4.03 |
1950–1959 | 241 | 4 | 3.06 | 1.31 | 0.36–3.35 |
1960–1969 | 305 | 4 | 2.25 | 1.78 | 0.48–4.56 |
1970–1979 | 255 | 2 | 1.47 | 1.36 | 0.17–4.92 |
1980–1989 | 167 | 0 | 0.69 | 0.00 | 0.00–5.35 |
1990–1994 | 107 | 0 | 0.26 | 0.00* | 0.00–14.19 |
© 2011 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Burns, C.; Bodner, K.; Swaen, G.; Collins, J.; Beard, K.; Lee, M. Cancer Incidence of 2,4-D Production Workers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 3579-3590. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8093579
Burns C, Bodner K, Swaen G, Collins J, Beard K, Lee M. Cancer Incidence of 2,4-D Production Workers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2011; 8(9):3579-3590. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8093579
Chicago/Turabian StyleBurns, Carol, Kenneth Bodner, Gerard Swaen, James Collins, Kathy Beard, and Marcia Lee. 2011. "Cancer Incidence of 2,4-D Production Workers" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8, no. 9: 3579-3590. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8093579