Analytical Enzymatic Saccharification of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Conversion to Biofuels and Bio-Based Chemicals
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Lignocellulosic Feedstocks
3. Pretreatment for Enzymatic Saccharification
4. Enzymatic Saccharification of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks
5. Analytical-Scale Pretreatment and Enzymatic Saccharification
5.1. Pretreatment and Enzymatic Saccharification
5.2. Analysis of Reaction Mixtures
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Method | Typical Temperature and Reaction Time | Chemicals | Effects on Hemi-Celluloses | Effects on Lignin | Effects on Cellulose | Examples of Upscaling Attempts | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrothermal pretreatment | ~170–230 °C, 10–30 min | None | Partial solubilization | Slight removal | Slight crystallinity increase | Inbicon (Denmark) | [25] |
Hydrothermal pretreatment with dilute acid | ~120–230 °C, from a few sec to ~1 h | H2SO4, HCl, H3PO4, organic acids | Complete hydrolysis | Disruption and redistribution, slight removal | Partial depolymerization, slight crystallinity increase | Iogen-Raízen (Brazil), POET-DSM (USA), Iogen (Canada), Blue Sugars (USA) | [23,26,27] |
Hydrothermal pretreatment with steam explosion | ~160–230 °C, ~1–30 min | None, SO2, H2SO4, H3PO4, NaOH | Partial to complete solubilization, de-acetylation | Slight removal and modification | Slight crystallinity increase | Sekab (Sweden), Abengoa (Spain), Beta Renewables (Italy), Verenium (USA), Greenfield (Canada) | [23,24,27] |
Mild alkaline methods | ~25–180 °C, from a few min to several weeks | NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, NH4OH | Partial solubilization, deacetylation | Significant removal | Crystallinity decrease, depolymerization | DuPont Danisco (USA) | [28] |
AFEX | 40–100 °C, 5–45 min | NH3 | Deacetylation | Structural changes | Crystallinity decrease | DEINOVE-MBI (USA) | [28,29] |
Chemical pulping (Kraft, sulfite, soda, or organosolv) | 90–250 °C, 30–60 min | Depends on process | Variable removal | Extensive removal | No removal, but degree of polymerization and crystallinity affected | Borregaard (Norway), Lignol (Canada), Chempolis (Finland) | [30,31] |
Oxidative methods | From room temperature to ~200 °C | O3, O2, H2O2 | Partial removal | Significant removal | Partial depolymerization, marginal crystallinity increase | BioGasol (Denmark) | [23] |
Ionic liquids | ~80–130 °C | Ionic liquids | Solubilization | Solubilization | Decrystallization | ? | [32,33,34] |
Approach | Feedstock; Particle Size; Loading (DW) | Pretreatment Conditions | Solid-Liquid Separation; Wash | Enzymatic Saccharification (ES) | Analysis Methods | Sugar Yield (Control) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Preparative PT (organosolv) and analytical-scale ES (MTP) | Yellow poplar wood; 1.76 g wood chips per hand sheet (PT); 1.78 mg disk per well (ES) | Ethanol-Organosolv at 195 °C for ~90‘ | Yes; Washes with ethanol (70%) and H2O | Desalted A and E separately; 0.1 M AB (WC); pH 5.0; 50 °C; 24 h; 600 rpm | Glu (ES)-HPLC-PAD, enzyme coupled assay (GOX-PRX). | 82% Cel⇔Glu in 24 h. | [65] |
With and w/o preparative PT (AFEX). Analytical-scale ES (MWP) | Corn stover; <0.1 mm; 1 kg BM (PT); 1000 µl PT slurry (0.25–1% G load, ES) | AFEX (1 kg NH3) at 90 °C for 5‘ (instantaneous pressure release) | No; dried overnight to remove NH3 | C and B; 0.05 M CB (WC); pH 4.8; 50 °C; 24 h; 375 rpm | Glu-HPLC-RID, spectrophotometric assay (Glu bio-enzymatic assay kit) | 20% G⇔Glu (ES w/o PT); 90% G⇔Glu (PT+ES) | [69] |
Combined PT and ES + ES w/o PT (HTDP method). HPT with acid or PT with alkali in micronic tubes. | Corn stover, A. thaliana; <0.35 mm (robotic); 1.5 mg powder per micronic tube | PT with alkali (6.25 or 62.5 mM NaOH) at 90 °C for 180’, or HPT with 2% H2SO4 at 120 °C for 45’ | No; Neutralized with 0.03 M CB, HCl, or NaOH | G; 0.03 M CB (WC); pH 4.5; 50 °C; 20 h; end-over-end rotation | Glu-GOX-PRX; Xyl-XDH; Total Mono content-alditol acetate/GC method. | Up to 1500 nmol (0.27 mg) Glu/mg BM | [64] |
Combined PT (HPT) and ES in Hastelloy 96-well format | Poplar (around 755 variants); <1 mm; 5 mg per well | HPT at 180 °C for 40‘ | No; Neutralized with 1 M CB, pH 5.0 | C and B; 1 M CB (NC), pH 5.0, 40°C, 72 h, static incubation | Glu-GOX-PRX; Xyl-XDH; Mono-HPLC-RID | TSY (Glu+Xyl): 0.17–0.64 g/g BM | [70] |
Combined HTP-PT (HPT) and ES + ES w/o PT (Hastelloy 96-well format) | P. trichocarpa (47 phenotypes); 0.180–0.85 mm; 2.6 mg; <2% solids | HPT (180 °C for 18’, or 160°C for 28’, or 140°C for 464’) | No; Neutralized with 1 M CB pH 4.95 | C and F; 1 M CB (NC); pH 4.95; 50 °C; 72 h; 150 rpm. | Mono-HPLC-RID | TSY: 0.437–0.68 g/g BM (PT+ES); 0.05–0.40 g/g BM (ES w/o PT) | [51,52,53] |
Combined PT (PT with acid or alkali) and ES (96 MWP format). | A. thaliana, Brachypodium, poplar, maize, barley, tobacco; powder; 4 mg per well | PT with 0.5–4% H2SO4 or 0.5 N NaOH, 90°C, time variable depending on plant material | Yes; 0.025 M AB wash | Desalted A and B; 0.025 M AB; pH 4.5; 50 °C; shaking | RS-MTBH assay; Mono (PTL and ES)-HPAEC-ECD | Tobacco WT: 50 µmol (9 mg) Glu/g BM | [62,63] |
Combined PT (HPT) and ES | A. mangium (transgenic); powder; 100 mg | HPT at 120°C for 3’ | Yes; H2O wash | H; 0.05 M AB; pH 4.8; 0.02% Tween-20; 45 °C; 48 h; 135 rpm | RS (ES)-Somogyi–Nelson method; Glu (ES)-GOX method | 9.4 mg RS/100 mg BM, 6.8 Glu mg/100 mg. | [61] |
Combined PT (HPT with acid using ASE 350) and ES. | 156 different feedstocks: corn stover, poplar, etc.; <2 mm; 3 g | HPT with 1% H2SO4 at 110–200 °C for 13’ (7’ heating, 6’ static) | Yes; H2O wash | D; 0.1 M CB; pH 4.8; 48 h; 5–7 days | Glu and Xyl (PTL and ES)-HPLC-RID | Corn stover: PT+ES 0.309 g Glu and 0.228 g Xyl/g BM. | [68] |
Combined PT (HPT with alkali using Hastelloy 96-well format) and ES. | Switchgrass, P. tremuloides; 0.180–0.85 mm; 4.5 mg | HPT with 1% NaOH at 120°C for 10–1440’ | No; diluted with H2O, neutralized with 1 M CB, pH 4.5 | C and F; 1 M CB (NC); pH 4.95; 50 °C; 72 h; 150 rpm. | Mono-HPLC-RID | Poplar: 49-69% (Glu+Xyl); Switch-grass: 85% (Glu) | [72] |
Combined PT (PT with acid) and ES + ES w/o PT | P. tremula × P. alba (green house); powder; 10 mg | PT with 1 ml of 1 N HCl at 80°C for 120’ | Yes; H2O wash, 70% (v/v) ethanol, and 100% acetone | Desalted A and B; AB pH 4.8; 50 °C; 48 h | Glu in ES (with and w/o PT)-GOX-PRX assay | 16–18% Cel⇔Glu | [66] |
HTDP: combined PT (HPT with acid or PT with alkali) and ES | P. tremula × P. alba (field grown); powder; 1.5 mg | HPT with 0.4 M H2SO4 (120 °C, 45’), or PT with 6.25 or 62.5 mM NaOH (90 °C, 180’) | No; Neutralized with acid or base depending on PT. | Desalted A and B; AB pH 4.8; 50 °C; 48 h | HPLC-RID | 16–69% Cel⇔Glu | [67] |
Combined PT (HPT with acid using robotic single-mode microwave system) and ES + ES w/o PT. | Hybrid aspen; 0.1–0.5 mm; 50 mg | HPT with 1% H2SO4 at 165 °C for 10’ | Yes; H2O wash and 0.05 M CB (pH 5.2). | A and B; 0.05 M CB pH 5.2; 45 °C; 72 h; 170 rpm | Mono (PTL and ES)-HPAEC-ECD; Glu (ES)-GOX; ACA (PTL)-HPAEC-CD | Glu (g/g BM): 0.1–0.25 g (ES); 0.35–0.5 g (PT+ES) | [47,48,54,55,56,57,58,71] |
Combined PT (HTP with acid using robotic single-mode micro-wave system) and ES + ES w/o PT. | Scots pine, Norway spruce; 0.1–0.5 mm; 50 mg | HPT with 2–4% H2SO4 at 180 °C for 5–30’ | Yes; H2O wash and 0.05 M CB (pH 5.2). | A and B; 0.05 M CB; pH 5.2; 45 °C; 72 h; 170 rpm | Mono (PTL and ES)-HPAEC-ECD; Glu (ES)-GOX; ACA (PTL)-HPAEC-CD | Glu (g/g BM): 0.03–0.10 g (ES); 0.1–0.34 g (PT+ES) | [59,60] |
Combined IL-PT and ES + ES w/o PT | Hybrid aspen, Norway spruce; 0.1–0.5 mm; 50 mg | 950 mg IL ([Bmim] [HSO4], [Bmim][Ac], [Bmim][Cl], or [Amim][Ac]) at 100 °C for 1200’ | Yes; H2O wash and 0.05 M CB (pH 5.2). | A and B; 0.05 M CB; pH 5.2; 45 °C; 72 h; 170 rpm | Mono (PTL and ES)-HPAEC-ECD; Glu-GOX; ACA (PTL)-HPLC-RID; furans (PTL)-HPLC-DAD. | Glu (g/g BM): aspen, 0.1 g (ES), 0.13–0.35 g (PT+ES); spruce, 0.03 g (ES), 0.4 g (PT+ES) | [43,60,73] |
PT (HPT) and ES + ES w/o PT (Hastelloy 96-well format) | P. deltoides, Switch grass, Rice; 0.85–1 mm; 5 mg | HPT at 180 °C for 17.5’ | No. | D; 1.0 M CB (NC); pH 5.0; 50 °C; 70 h; static incubation | Glu-GOX-PRX; Xyl-XDH | Poplar: (0.32 g Glu and 0.17 g Xyl) /g BM | [49,50,53] |
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Gandla, M.L.; Martín, C.; Jönsson, L.J. Analytical Enzymatic Saccharification of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Conversion to Biofuels and Bio-Based Chemicals. Energies 2018, 11, 2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112936
Gandla ML, Martín C, Jönsson LJ. Analytical Enzymatic Saccharification of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Conversion to Biofuels and Bio-Based Chemicals. Energies. 2018; 11(11):2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112936
Chicago/Turabian StyleGandla, Madhavi Latha, Carlos Martín, and Leif J. Jönsson. 2018. "Analytical Enzymatic Saccharification of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Conversion to Biofuels and Bio-Based Chemicals" Energies 11, no. 11: 2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112936
APA StyleGandla, M. L., Martín, C., & Jönsson, L. J. (2018). Analytical Enzymatic Saccharification of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Conversion to Biofuels and Bio-Based Chemicals. Energies, 11(11), 2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112936