Author Contributions
Conceptualization, Z.T., D.Z. and H.F.; methodology, T.Z. and Z.D.; software, Z.T., B.L. and D.Q.; validation, D.Q., Q.H., Z.D., and H.F.; formal analysis, Z.T., Q.D. and Q.H.; investigation, T.Z. and L.B.; resources, Z.T., B.L. and Z.D.; data curation, T.Z. and D.Q.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.T.; writing—review and editing, Q.D. and Q.H.; visualization, Z.T.; supervision, W.G., D.Z. and H.F.; project administration, Z.T., B.L. and Z.D.; funding acquisition, D.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
Location of gully regions.
Figure 1.
Location of gully regions.
Figure 3.
Five steps in the architectural full life cycle.
Figure 3.
Five steps in the architectural full life cycle.
Figure 4.
Location of Nan Zhai town.
Figure 4.
Location of Nan Zhai town.
Figure 5.
Present situation of the three typical residential buildings
Figure 5.
Present situation of the three typical residential buildings
Figure 6.
Total energy demand in building materials manufacture (MJ).
Figure 6.
Total energy demand in building materials manufacture (MJ).
Figure 7.
Energy demand of building materials manufacture in unit construction area (MJ).
Figure 7.
Energy demand of building materials manufacture in unit construction area (MJ).
Figure 8.
Energy demand of building erection (MJ).
Figure 8.
Energy demand of building erection (MJ).
Figure 9.
Energy demand of building erection in unit construction area (MJ).
Figure 9.
Energy demand of building erection in unit construction area (MJ).
Figure 10.
Total energy demand in the process of building use.
Figure 10.
Total energy demand in the process of building use.
Figure 11.
Energy demand of unit construction area in the process of building use.
Figure 11.
Energy demand of unit construction area in the process of building use.
Figure 12.
Total energy demand in the process of building demolition.
Figure 12.
Total energy demand in the process of building demolition.
Figure 13.
Energy demand of unit construction area in the process of building demolition.
Figure 13.
Energy demand of unit construction area in the process of building demolition.
Figure 14.
Total energy demand in the process of waste disposal.
Figure 14.
Total energy demand in the process of waste disposal.
Figure 15.
Energy demand of unit construction area in the process of waste disposal.
Figure 15.
Energy demand of unit construction area in the process of waste disposal.
Figure 16.
Total energy demand in the full life cycle.
Figure 16.
Total energy demand in the full life cycle.
Figure 17.
Total energy demand of the unit construction area in the full life cycle.
Figure 17.
Total energy demand of the unit construction area in the full life cycle.
Figure 18.
Energy demand in each process of the full life cycle of three residential buildings (%).
Figure 18.
Energy demand in each process of the full life cycle of three residential buildings (%).
Table 1.
Space distribution in gully regions of the Loess Plateau.
Table 1.
Space distribution in gully regions of the Loess Plateau.
Region | Sub-Regions | Provinces | Cities | Land Areas (km2) | Total Population (mil.) |
---|
Gully regions of the Loess Plateau | Gully region of Long Dong | Gan Su | Qing Yang | 9213 | 4.3 |
Ping Lang |
Gully region of Shan Bei | Shaanxi | Yan’an | 3505 |
Tong Chuan |
Wei Nan |
Gully regions of Wei Bei | Shaanxi | Xian Yang | 2058 |
Bao Ji |
Table 2.
Overview of three different kinds of residential buildings.
Table 2.
Overview of three different kinds of residential buildings.
Residential Building | Village | Building Area (m2) |
---|
Adobe residential building | Yang Po Village | 44.10 |
One-story brick-concrete structure residential building | Zhao Yang Village | 46.21 |
Two-story brick-concrete structure residential building | Zhao Yang Village | 46.44 |
Table 3.
List of building materials in different residential buildings.
Table 3.
List of building materials in different residential buildings.
Name (Unit) | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Clay brick (block) | 2654 | 14,053 | 20,076 |
Stone (m3) | 5.16 | 9.45 | 10.50 |
Wood (m3) | 18.9 | 9.66 | 19.4 |
Steel (Ton) | 0.01 | 0.13 | 0.18 |
Cement (Ton) | 0.23 | 1.53 | 1.74 |
Glass (Kg) | − | 110.7 | 230.7 |
Ceramic materials (Ton) | − | 0.53 | 1.58 |
Preproduced concrete (Ton) (Ton) | − | 2.35 | 6.79 |
Sand (m³) | 3.87 | 7.56 | 10.64 |
Tile (block) | 1973 | 2004 | 2092 |
Paint (Kg) | − | 53 | 76 |
Total construction area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
Table 4.
Energy demand in manufacture process of different residential buildings (MJ).
Table 4.
Energy demand in manufacture process of different residential buildings (MJ).
Name (Unit) | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Clay brick (block) | 37,481.11 | 19,8463.49 | 283,523.31 |
Stone (m3) | 31.32 | 57.35 | 63.72 |
Wood (m3) | 10,206 | 5216.4 | 10,476 |
Steel (Ton) | 180.26 | 2343.34 | 3244.63 |
Cement (Ton) | 556.01 | 3698.68 | 4206.34 |
Glass (Kg) | − | 2847.76 | 5934.76 |
Ceramic materials (Ton) | − | 486.29 | 1449.70 |
Preproduced concrete (Ton) | − | 4136 | 11,950.4 |
Sand (m³) | 20.20 | 39.45 | 55.52 |
Tile (block) | 9239.56 | 9384.73 | 9796.84 |
Paint (Kg) | − | 248.20 | 355.91 |
Total energy demand (MJ) | 57,714.46 | 226,921.69 | 331,057.13 |
Total construction area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
Energy demand in unit construction area (MJ/m2) | 1308.72 | 4910.66 | 3822.39 |
Table 5.
Energy demand list for the building erection process for different residential buildings (MJ).
Table 5.
Energy demand list for the building erection process for different residential buildings (MJ).
Construction Method | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Site cleaning | 441.00 | 462.10 | 866.10 |
Floor layout | 2303.78 | 2414.01 | 4524.51 |
Material stacking | 2293.20 | 2402.92 | 4503.72 |
Site leveling | 751.02 | 786.96 | 1474.97 |
Material transportation in site | 8764.43 | 9183.78 | 17,212.87 |
Foundation excavation | 1202.17 | 1259.68 | 2360.99 |
Transportation for workers | 20,282.91 | 21,253.37 | 39,834.54 |
Temporary power supply | − | 1046.66 | 1961.72 |
Total energy demand | 36,038.51 | 38,809.48 | 72,739.42 |
Total construction area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
Unit construction area energy demand (MJ/m2) | 817.20 | 839.85 | 839.85 |
Table 6.
Energy demand for the transportation of building materials in residential buildings (MJ).
Table 6.
Energy demand for the transportation of building materials in residential buildings (MJ).
Construction Materials | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Soil brick (block) | 6.64 | 35.34 | 50.19 |
Stone (m3) | 15.48 | 28.35 | 31.50 |
Wood (m3) | 18.9 | 9.66 | 19.4 |
Steel (Ton) | 0.01 | 0.13 | 0.18 |
Cement (Ton) | 0.23 | 1.53 | 1.74 |
Glass (Kg) | − | 0.111 | 0.231 |
Ceramic materials (Ton) | − | 0.53 | 1.58 |
Preproduced concrete (Ton) | − | 2.35 | 6.79 |
Sand (m³) | 5.23 | 10.21 | 14.35 |
Tile (block) | 1.973 | 2.004 | 2.092 |
Paint (Kg) | − | 0.053 | 0.076 |
Total energy demand (MJ) | 1456.36 | 2712.64 | 3850.41 |
Total construction area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
Unit construction area energy demand (MJ/m2) | 33.02 | 58.90 | 44.46 |
Table 7.
Energy demand in building erecting of different residential buildings (MJ).
Table 7.
Energy demand in building erecting of different residential buildings (MJ).
Energy Demand | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Energy demand in erecting process (MJ) | 36,038.51 | 38,809.48 | 72,739.42 |
Energy demand in the material transportation process (MJ) | 1456.36 | 2712.64 | 3850.41 |
Total Energy demand (MJ) | 37,494.87 | 41,531.12 | 76,589.83 |
Total construction area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
Unit energy demand (MJ/m2) | 850.22 | 898.75 | 884.31 |
Table 8.
Model simplification data for different residential buildings (m).
Table 8.
Model simplification data for different residential buildings (m).
Types | Building Bay | Building Depth | Story Height | Volume (m3) |
---|
Adobe residential building | 9.00 | 3.70 | 3.00 | 99.90 |
One-story brick-concrete building | 8.80 | 4.50 | 3.00 | 118.80 |
Two-story brick-concrete building | 9.00 | 3.90 | 4.80 | 168.48 |
Table 9.
The calculation results of the heat load coefficient of cold wind penetration.
Table 9.
The calculation results of the heat load coefficient of cold wind penetration.
Types | N: Ventilation Frequency (Times/Hour) | V: Ventilation Volume (m3) | Pa: Average Density for Outdoor Air (Kg/m3) | Cp: Specific Heat Capacity in Fixed Air Pressure (KJ/oC·d) | nVpacp: Heat Load Coefficient of Cold Wind Penetration |
---|
Adobe residential building | 0.5 | 99.90 | 1.2 | 1.008 | 60.42 |
One-story brick-concrete building | 0.5 | 118.80 | 1.2 | 1.008 | 71.85 |
Two-story brick-concrete building | 0.5 | 168.48 | 1.2 | 1.008 | 101.90 |
Table 10.
Closure structure area Ai for three different residential buildings (m2).
Table 10.
Closure structure area Ai for three different residential buildings (m2).
Types | East Wall | West Wall | South Wall | North Wall | Roof |
---|
Adobe residential building | 11.10 | 11.10 | 27.00 | 27.00 | 56.93 |
One-story brick-concrete building | 13.50 | 13.50 | 26.4 | 26.4 | 56.83 |
Two-story brick-concrete building | 18.72 | 18.72 | 43.20 | 43.20 | 53.98 |
Table 11.
Thermal conductivity coefficient Ki of adobe residential building.
Table 11.
Thermal conductivity coefficient Ki of adobe residential building.
Adobe Residential Building | Construction Materials | (m)
| (W/m2·°C)
| K: Thermal Conductivity Coefficient(W/m2·°C) |
---|
Wall | Immature soil | 0.4 | 0.76 | 1.479 |
Roof | Tile | 0.03 | 0.76 | 3.380 |
Grass mud | 0.05 | 0.47 |
Floor | Clay brick | 0.12 | 0.76 | 3.248 |
Window | Wood frame and single glass window | 5.800 |
Door | single wooden door | 4.650 |
Table 12.
Thermal conductivity coefficient Ki of one/two-story brick-concrete structure building.
Table 12.
Thermal conductivity coefficient Ki of one/two-story brick-concrete structure building.
One/Two-story Brick-Concrete Building | Construction Materials | (m)
| (W/ m2·°C)
| Thermal Conductivity Coefficient (W/ m2·°C) |
---|
Wall | Clay brick | 0.24 | 0.76 | 2.052 |
Cement plastering | 0.02 | 0.93 |
Roof | Tile | 0.03 | 0.76 | 3.380 |
Grass mud | 0.05 | 0.47 |
Floor | Clay brick | 0.12 | 0.76 | 2.668 |
Cement plastering | 0.03 | 0.93 |
Window | Steel frame and single glass window | 6.400 |
Door | Steel frame and single glass door | 6.400 |
Table 13.
The calculated AiKi value for closure structure in three residential buildings.
Table 13.
The calculated AiKi value for closure structure in three residential buildings.
| East Wall | West Wall | South Wall | North Wall | Roof | Floor | Windows | Doors | Total |
---|
Adobe residential building |
Ai | 11.10 | 11.10 | 23.11 | 27.00 | 56.93 | 44.10 | 2.00 | 1.89 | |
Ki | 1.479 | 1.479 | 1.479 | 1.479 | 3.380 | 3.238 | 5.800 | 4.650 |
Ai Ki | 16.42 | 16.42 | 34.18 | 39.93 | 192.42 | 142.80 | 11.60 | 8.79 | 462.56 |
One-story brick-concrete building |
Ai | 13.5 | 13.5 | 19.50 | 26.40 | 56.83 | 46.21 | 3.12 | 3.78 | |
Ki | 2.052 | 2.052 | 2.052 | 2.052 | 3.380 | 2.668 | 6.400 | 6.400 |
Ai Ki | 27.70 | 27.70 | 40.01 | 54.17 | 192.09 | 123.29 | 19.97 | 24.19 | 509.12 |
Two-story brick-concrete building |
Ai | 18.72 | 18.72 | 27.74 | 43.20 | 53.98 | 46.44 | 9.46 | 6.00 | |
Ki | 2.052 | 2.052 | 2.052 | 2.052 | 3.380 | 2.668 | 6.400 | 6.400 |
Ai Ki | 38.41 | 38.41 | 56.92 | 88.65 | 182.45 | 123.90 | 60.54 | 38.40 | 627.68 |
Table 14.
NLC value of three residential buildings.
Table 14.
NLC value of three residential buildings.
Types | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
NLC | 41,415.26 | 45,712.37 | 56,677.15 |
Table 15.
Simplified formula of the monthly solar efficient heat SM for each residential buildings.
Table 15.
Simplified formula of the monthly solar efficient heat SM for each residential buildings.
Types | Ag (m2)
| Xm | aa | SM |
---|
Adobe residential building | 2.00 | 0.7 | 0.98 | 1.3720 SotM |
One-story brick-concrete building | 3.12 | 0.75 | 0.98 | 2.2932 SotM |
Two-story brick-concrete building | 9.46 | 0.75 | 0.98 | 6.9531 SotM |
Table 16.
Calculation for the yearly auxiliary energy demand in adobe residential buildings.
Table 16.
Calculation for the yearly auxiliary energy demand in adobe residential buildings.
Character | Unit | November | December | January | February | March |
---|
M | d | 30 | 31 | 31 | 28 | 31 |
DDM | °C·d | 360 | 558 | 620 | 462 | 310 |
Sot | KJ/m2·d | 13,151 | 15,635 | 15,358 | 13,289 | 11,610 |
SM | KJ | 541,295 | 664,988 | 653,206 | 510,510 | 375,839 |
SLRM | − | 0.036 | 0.029 | 0.026 | 0.027 | 0.030 |
SHFM | − | − | − | − | − | − |
Qaux,m | 103 MJ | 13.41 | 21.56 | 24.13 | 17.74 | 11.29 |
Qaux,q | 103 MJ | 88.13 |
Table 17.
Calculation for the yearly auxiliary energy demand in one-story brick-concrete buildings.
Table 17.
Calculation for the yearly auxiliary energy demand in one-story brick-concrete buildings.
Character | Unit | November | December | January | February | March |
---|
M | d | 30 | 31 | 31 | 28 | 31 |
DDM | °C·d | 360 | 558 | 620 | 462 | 310 |
Sot | KJ/m2·d | 11,207 | 13,379 | 12,943 | 11,003 | 8166 |
SM | KJ | 770,997 | 951,102 | 920,108 | 706,498 | 580,514 |
SLRM | − | 0.046 | 0.037 | 0.032 | 0.033 | 0.041 |
SHFM | − | − | − | − | − | − |
Qaux,m | 103·MJ | 14.96 | 23.96 | 26.79 | 19.72 | 12.62 |
Qaux,q | 103·MJ | 98.05 |
Table 18.
Calculation for the yearly auxiliary energy demand in two-story brick-concrete buildings.
Table 18.
Calculation for the yearly auxiliary energy demand in two-story brick-concrete buildings.
Character | Unit | November | December | January | February | March |
---|
M | d | 30 | 31 | 31 | 28 | 31 |
DDM | °C·d | 360 | 558 | 620 | 462 | 310 |
Sot | KJ/m2·d | 11,207 | 13,379 | 12,943 | 11,003 | 8166 |
SM | KJ | 2,337,702 | 2,883,791 | 2,789,813 | 2,142,139 | 1,760,149 |
SLRM | − | 0.114 | 0.091 | 0.080 | 0.081 | 0.100 |
SHFM | − | 0.03 | − | − | − | 0.03 |
Qaux,m | 103 MJ | 18.29 | 30.08 | 33.59 | 24.79 | 15.50 |
Qaux,q | 103 MJ | 122.25 |
Table 19.
Yearly auxiliary energy demand in unit construction area (MJ/m2).
Table 19.
Yearly auxiliary energy demand in unit construction area (MJ/m2).
Types | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Yearly auxiliary energy demand (103 MJ) | 88.130 | 98.050 | 122.250 |
Total construction area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
Yearly auxiliary energy demand of unit construction area (MJ/m2) | 1998.41 | 2121.84 | 1411.50 |
Table 20.
Energy demand for building demolition in different residential buildings (MJ).
Table 20.
Energy demand for building demolition in different residential buildings (MJ).
Terms | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Foundation excavation area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 46.44 |
Energy demand for demolishing building (MJ) | 33,745.38 | 37,378.01 | 68,930.85 |
Energy demand for soil refilling (MJ) | 242.90 | 254.52 | 255.79 |
Total energy demand for building demolition (MJ) | 33,988.28 | 37,632.53 | 69,186.64 |
Total areas (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
demand for unit construction area (MJ/m2) | 770.71 | 809.13 | 798.83 |
Table 21.
Energy demand in the recyclable process for construction materials (MJ).
Table 21.
Energy demand in the recyclable process for construction materials (MJ).
Demolition Terms | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Energy demand for the transportation of recyclable construction materials (MJ) | 1499.12 | 46.21 | 5385.48 |
Energy demand for the transportation of unrecyclable construction materials (MJ) | 590.83 | 1539.48 | 2221.42 |
Energy demand for the second manufacture of recyclable material (MJ) | 72.10 | 426.06 | 1297.85 |
Total energy demand for waste material treatment (MJ) | 2162.05 | 6103.77 | 9828.32 |
Total energy demand for energy saving of the recyclable material (MJ) | 54.08 | 703.00 | 973.39 |
Total construction area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
Energy demand for water materials treatment in unit construction area (MJ/m2) | 49.03 | 131.44 | 113.78 |
Table 22.
Energy demand in each process of full life cycle for the three residential buildings (MJ).
Table 22.
Energy demand in each process of full life cycle for the three residential buildings (MJ).
Calculation Terms | Adobe Residential Building | One-Story Brick-Concrete Building | Two-Story Brick-Concrete Building |
---|
Building materials manufacture (MJ) | 57,714.46 | 226,921.69 | 331,057.13 |
Building erecting (MJ) | 37,494.87 | 41,531.12 | 76,589.83 |
Building using (MJ) | 2,643,900.00 | 2,941,500.00 | 3,667,500.00 |
Building demolition (MJ) | 33,988.28 | 37,632.53 | 69,186.64 |
waste disposal (MJ) | 2162.05 | 6103.77 | 9828.32 |
Total energy demand in full life cycle (MJ) | 2,775,259.66 | 3,253,689.11 | 4,154,161.92 |
Total construction area (m2) | 44.10 | 46.21 | 86.61 |
Energy demand in unit construction area (MJ/m2) | 62,931.06 | 70,410.93 | 47,964.00 |