Author Contributions
Conceptualization, A.P. and M.S.b.D.; methodology, A.P. and M.S.b.D.; software, A.P.; validation, D.G.; formal analysis and investigation, D.G.; resources, A.P.; data curation, X.X.; writing—original draft preparation, D.G.; writing—review and editing, A.P. visualization, M.S.b.D.; supervision, A.P.; project administration, A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
4-Cylinder Engine.
Figure 1.
4-Cylinder Engine.
Figure 2.
Theoretical BSFC map of 2 ZR-FXE Engine (left) and theoretical engine power of 2 ZR-FXE Engine (right).
Figure 2.
Theoretical BSFC map of 2 ZR-FXE Engine (left) and theoretical engine power of 2 ZR-FXE Engine (right).
Figure 3.
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) model of engine model.
Figure 3.
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) model of engine model.
Figure 4.
Brake power of engine model.
Figure 4.
Brake power of engine model.
Figure 5.
1 Module of the thermoelectric generator (TEG).
Figure 5.
1 Module of the thermoelectric generator (TEG).
Figure 6.
TEG Model with 10 TEG modules.
Figure 6.
TEG Model with 10 TEG modules.
Figure 7.
Series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) model.
Figure 7.
Series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) model.
Figure 8.
Engine thermal efficiency.
Figure 8.
Engine thermal efficiency.
Figure 9.
Exhaust pressure.
Figure 9.
Exhaust pressure.
Figure 10.
Exhaust mass flow rate.
Figure 10.
Exhaust mass flow rate.
Figure 11.
Exhaust temperature.
Figure 11.
Exhaust temperature.
Figure 12.
Exhaust heat released.
Figure 12.
Exhaust heat released.
Figure 13.
Power generated by 1 module (25 mm × 25 mm).
Figure 13.
Power generated by 1 module (25 mm × 25 mm).
Figure 14.
Device efficiency of 1 module (25 mm × 25 mm).
Figure 14.
Device efficiency of 1 module (25 mm × 25 mm).
Figure 15.
System efficiency of 1 module (25 mm × 25 mm).
Figure 15.
System efficiency of 1 module (25 mm × 25 mm).
Figure 16.
Power generated by different module size (1 module).
Figure 16.
Power generated by different module size (1 module).
Figure 17.
Device efficiency of different module size (1 module).
Figure 17.
Device efficiency of different module size (1 module).
Figure 18.
System efficiency of different module size (1 module).
Figure 18.
System efficiency of different module size (1 module).
Figure 19.
Power generated by different materials (1 module).
Figure 19.
Power generated by different materials (1 module).
Figure 20.
System efficiency of different materials (1 module).
Figure 20.
System efficiency of different materials (1 module).
Figure 21.
Average power generated by TEG at different engine speed (25 mm ×25 mm).
Figure 21.
Average power generated by TEG at different engine speed (25 mm ×25 mm).
Figure 22.
Device efficiency of different number of modules.
Figure 22.
Device efficiency of different number of modules.
Figure 23.
System efficiency of different number of modules.
Figure 23.
System efficiency of different number of modules.
Figure 24.
Efficiency of TEG.
Figure 24.
Efficiency of TEG.
Figure 25.
Thermal efficiency improvement.
Figure 25.
Thermal efficiency improvement.
Figure 26.
BSFC reduction.
Figure 26.
BSFC reduction.
Figure 28.
Driving cycle (New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)).
Figure 28.
Driving cycle (New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)).
Figure 29.
Engine speed (NEDC).
Figure 29.
Engine speed (NEDC).
Figure 30.
Drive cycle (Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP)).
Figure 30.
Drive cycle (Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP)).
Figure 31.
Engine speed (WLTP).
Figure 31.
Engine speed (WLTP).
Table 1.
Engine specifications.
Table 1.
Engine specifications.
Specifications | Value |
---|
Engine Type | 2 ZR-FXE (Atkinson Cycle) |
Displacement | 1798 cc |
Bore × stroke | 80.5 mm × 88.3 mm |
Compression Ratio | 13.0:1 |
Fuel | Gasoline |
Max Power | 72 kW@5200 RPM |
Max Torque | 142 Nm@4200 RPM |
Table 2.
Fuel economy.
Test Data | Simulation |
---|
NEDC | WLTP | NEDC | WLTP |
65.7 mpg | 59.6–68.35 mpg | 56.4 mpg | 51.0 mpg |
Table 3.
Best option parameters for the TEG module.
Table 3.
Best option parameters for the TEG module.
Size | Material |
---|
25 mm × 25 mm | Ceramic |
Table 4.
Engine operating point for TEG.
Table 4.
Engine operating point for TEG.
Operating Point | SI Engine |
---|
RPM | Torque |
---|
P1 | 1000 | 60 |
P2 | 1000 | 80 |
P3 | 2000 | 90 |
P4 | 3000 | 100 |
P5 | 4000 | 142 |
P6 | 5200 | 130 |
Table 5.
Cost of power generation technologies.
Table 5.
Cost of power generation technologies.
Operating Temperature Range | Power Generation Technology | System Cost ($/W) |
---|
Low (100 °C) | Geothermal | $4.14 |
Half-Heusler Thermoelectric | $125.05 |
Chalcogenide Thermoelectric | $62.44 |
Medium (250 °C) | Organic Rankine Cycle | $4.00 |
Solar Power | $3.60 |
Skutterudite Thermoelectric | $19.02 |
High (500 °C) | Nuclear | $5.34 |
Coal | $2.84 |
Half-Heusler Thermoelectric | $4.48 |
Chalcogenide Thermoelectric | $5.06 |