Tuning Techniques for Piezoelectric and Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Piezoelectric and Electromagnetic Resonant Vibration Energy Harvesters
2.1. Modeling and Maximum Power Extraction
2.2. Definition of Tuning Techniques
3. Indicators for the Classification and Comparison of Mechanical Tuning Techniques
- Indicator Name: RVEH.
- Description: It indicates the type of RVEH to which the considered MTT is applied. If RVEH is “P” (“E”) it means that the considered MTT is applied to a P-RVEH (an E-RVEH). RVEH can be also equal to “Hybrid P/E” if the considered MTT is applied to a hybrid piezoelectric–electromagnetic RVEH.
- Indicator Name: Direction.
- Description: It indicates the oriented direction that, starting from the untuned resonance frequency, a MTT is able to exploit. In particular, if direction is “BOTH” the MTT is able to move the mechanical resonance frequency both in the increasing and in the decreasing direction. If instead direction is “RIGHT” (“LEFT”) the MTT is able to move the mechanical resonance frequency only in the increasing (decreasing) direction.
- Indicators Name: ΔfR and ΔfL.
- Description: These percentage indicators provide information concerning the range of frequency where the MTT can be applied with respect to the untuned mechanical resonance frequency. They are defined as follows
- Indicators Name: ΔPR and ΔPL.
- Description: These percentage indicators provide information concerning the reduction of the extracted power that is obtained at fR and fL with respect to fopt. They are defined as follows:
- Indicator Name: Implementation.
- Description: It describes the way the considered MTT is implemented. In fact, the mechanical resonance frequency of an RVEH can be varied by acting on many different variables. Some of these are mechanical quantities, other are electrical quantities. Therefore, implementation can be “MECHANICAL” for mechanically implemented MTTs or “ELECTRICAL” for electrically implemented MTTs. In particular, in a mechanically implemented MTT the working principle of the tuning relies on the regulation of a mechanical variable (as an example a distance between magnets or the position of a clamp) even if such a variable is tuned by means of an electrical system (as an example an electrical actuator). What is important in this definition is the fundamental variable driving the working principle and not its particular implementation. Instead, in an electrically implemented MTT the operating principle of the tuning is based on the regulation of an electrical quantity (as an example the voltage of a piezoelectric actuator).
- Indicator Name: Actuation.
- Description: It indicates the way the considered MTT is actuated. In particular, if actuation is “MANUAL” the MTT needs the intervention of an operator that manually acts on the tuning mechanism. Instead, if it is “AUTOMATIC” the MTT adopts an actuator (as an example a motor) or an electrical signal in order to prevent the human intervention.
- Indicator Name: Control.
- Description: If control is equal to “OPEN LOOP” then the MTT needs a precharacterization of the RVEH (e.g., for the definition of a look-up table) and it is affected by errors due to any possible parameter change in the system. If control is equal to “CLOSED LOOP” then the MTT is more robust and does not need a precharacterization, but it needs sensors in order to implement the feedback circuitry and hence more energy is required for its operation. Obviously, the only type of actuation that can be controlled in a closed loop is the AUTOMATIC one.
- Indicator Name: Supply.
- Description: It provides a picture of the type of power demand characterizing the considered MTT. In particular, if supply is “PASSIVE”, the considered MTT needs a significant amount of power only to move the RVEH’s resonance frequency but it is able to indefinitely maintain the new resonance frequency value without any additional power consumption. In such a case, the control system energy consumption mainly depends on the energy required for the tuning step and, hence, on the rate of resonance frequency adjustments that the operating conditions require. If instead supply is “ACTIVE”, besides the initial power required in order to move the resonance frequency, the MTT continues to require power in order to maintain the new resonance frequency. If supply is “SEMI-ACTIVE”, the MTT needs an initial significant amount of power for moving the resonance frequency and it is able to maintain, only for a limited period of time, such a new value of resonance frequency without any other additional power demand. However, due to unavoidable continuous drifts of the resonance frequency, a periodic refresh is needed with additional power demands. It is worth noting that, the supply indicator can be defined only when the actuation indicator is equal to AUTOMATIC (without human intervention).
- Indicator Name: Tuning period.
- Description: This is a crucial indicator when considering the power consumption. The main requirement for a MTT is of course as low as possible power consumption. A MTT that consumes an average power greater than the harvested one is obviously useless in practice. In fact, the main purpose of a RVEH is to power both the MTT controller and the load in any vibrations’ conditions. The tuning period indicator provides the minimum period of time that is needed by the REVEH in order to store the amount of energy needed by the MTT controller for a given resonance frequency adjustment in the considered acceleration conditions. Obviously, in the presence of vibration frequency shifts, for a proper operation of a MTT the tuning period must be much shorter than the period of the vibration’s frequency shifts. The shorter the tuning period is, the faster the MTT will be able to react to vibrations’ frequencies changes. There are papers in which this aspect is not discussed at all. The tuning period indicator can be defined only when the actuation indicator is equal to AUTOMATIC.
- Indicator Name: Vibrations.
- Description: This indicator is focused on the type of vibrations that the considered MTT and the corresponding RVEH are able to exploit. In particular, the basic classification that is considered in this paper is between “SINUSOIDAL” and “NOT-SINUSOIDAL” vibrations. This is a crucial aspect from the practical point of view. Various vibration sources characterized by different harmonic contents exist in practical applications. Examples of vibration sources are walking people, moving trains or cars, and domestic or industrial working machines [84,85,86]. Sinusoidal vibrations are rarely encountered in real world applications. Even if vibrations in practical applications are usually periodic, random, or single event motions (e.g., impacts) [84,85,86], for simplicity reasons, most research papers focusing on RVEHs and in particular on MTTs deal with purely sinusoidal vibration sources.
4. Overview of Mechanical Tuning Techniques
4.1. Magnetic Forces Based MTTs
4.2. Piezoelectric Actuators Based MTTs
4.3. Axial Loads Based MTTs
4.4. Clamp Position Change Based MTTs
4.5. Variable Reluctance Based MTTs
4.6. Variable Center of Gravity Based MTTs
5. Discussions and Open Issues
- First of all, it is possible to observe that, in all the papers focusing on MTTs, no attention at all is paid to ETTs. As it has been evidenced in Section 2, for the optimal exploitation of a RVEH both tuning techniques should be applied. Therefore, the need exists for a study of the joint application of both MTTs and ETTs. In addition, since in most papers reported in Figure 26 and Figure 27 a pure resistive load is considered, it is possible to state they are associated to underestimated results as their power performance is concerened.
- An important observation is worth noting. All the MTTs are based on the fact that RVEHs can be schematically represented (as discussed in Section 2.1) by means of spring-mass-damper systems. The mechanical resonance frequency of such systems (see (30) and (31)) depends on the values of the mass and of the stiffness and therefore it can be varied by acting on such two parameters values. In particular, for obvious reasons, it is easier to adopt a MTT that, during the RVEH operation, changes the stiffness rather than the value of the oscillating mass. In fact, nearly all the analyzed MTTs are based on the change of the stiffness. The application of a MTT for the increase of the resonance frequency by varying only the stiffness of the spring-mass-damper system is preferable also from another point of view. In fact, at least in principle, on the basis of (30) and (31), the increase of fres by means of the variation of the stiffness does not affect the maximum extractable power PMAX. Instead, the increase of fres by acting on the movable mass, requires the reduction of the value of such a mass with a consequent reduction of the maximum extractable power PMAX as shown in (32) and (33). It is worth noting instead that, in the case of application of a MTT for reducing fres, the variation of the moving mass (although unpractical) should be preferred with respect to that of the stiffness. In fact, at least in principle, on the basis of (32) and (33), the value of such a mass should be increased with a consequent increase of the maximum extractable power PMAX.
- From the analysis reported in Section 4 also another important aspect must be underlined. The tuning periods of the MTTs usually have too high values that can lead to questionable practical applicability of these techniques. In fact, a large tuning period means that a change in the frequency can be carried out only with a low speed, leading to quite slow MTTs that are able to track only vibrations characterised by relative slow dynamics. Therefore, an important objective for future research activities must be the reduction of the values of the tuning periods.
- It is clear that MTTs that are based on a closed-loop control are surely more robust and do not need a precharacterization of the system. However, they need sensors in order to implement the feedback circuitry and hence require much energy for their operation. Instead the MTTs that are based on an open-loop control require less energy but need a precharacterization of the system (e.g., for the definition of a LUT) and are less robust since they are affected by possible errors due to system parameters change. Trade-off solutions between closed-loop and open-loop adopting LUTs with “learning capability” seem to be very promising [25,26,38]. The MTTs that are more suitable for closed-loop controls are the piezoelectric actuators based MTTs since they can be simply controlled by acting on a voltage. In principle, it could be also possible to implement a MTT that is controlled in a closed-loop by acting on a current flowing in a proper coil in a magnetic forces based MTT. No system of this type has been proposed in the literature yet.
- A further aspect to underline is that, at the moment, all the MTTs are designed and tested in the case of purely sinusoidal vibrations. However, as stated in Section 3, purely sinusoidal vibrations are nearly impossible to be found in practical applications. Actual vibrations are usually periodic (with a fundamental component plus harmonics), random (with an energy content that is distributed over a wide frequency spectrum), or single event motions (as in the case of impacts) [84,85,86]. This is a crucial aspect and is an open issue for nearly all the RVEHs applications. In particular, as it can be observed from Section 4, many MTTs are based on the measurement of the vibration frequency. In the presence of purely sinusoidal vibrations such a task is quite simple. However, when the input vibrations are non-sinusoidal the task becomes much more complex and the detection of the vibration zero-crossings could mislead the MTT. A solution to such a problem could be a perturbative approach such as the one that is implemented in maximum power point tracking applications for RVEHs [98,100]. The perturbative approach could get rid of the measurement of the vibration frequency, since it could be based on the measurement of the extracted power and could adapt the RVEH’s resonance frequency in order to maximize such a power. Moreover, in this case the gap in the literature on such an important issue needs to be filled.
- Another important observation concerns the compliance of MTTs with miniaturization. In fact, miniaturization is of crucial importance in order to make RVEHs equipped with MTTs and suitable for wireless sensors networks or biosensors applications. Obviously, all the MTTs that are implemented by using cumbersome motors or mechanical actuators are not compatible with miniaturized systems and therefore further research on such a topic is necessary.
- Among all the analyzed MTTs, a very interesting property is the “passive self-tuning” capability that characterizes the variable center of gravity based MTT proposed in [45,46]. In particular, it has an auto-tune resonance frequency property due to the continuous change in the center of gravity following the vibration frequency change. This is a very important mechanical property that leads to a system that does not need any external control circuitry and its associated energy consumption. Such an interesting property could be the starting point for the future identification of other types of structures with auto-tuning capabilities.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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MTT Name | Papers | Operating Principle Description |
---|---|---|
Magnetic Forces Based | [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20] | They use the interaction between magnets with the aim of altering the stiffness of a RVEH, thus changing its mechanical resonance frequency. |
Piezoelectric Actuators Based | [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29] | The adjustment of the RVEH resonance frequency is implemented by changing the mechanical stiffness by using piezoelectric actuators. |
Axial Loads Based | [30,31,32,33,34] | They exploit the fact that it is possible to vary the resonance frequency of an oscillating beam by means of axial loads. |
Clamp Position Change Based | [35,36,37,38] | They tune the stiffness of a cantilever beam by changing the position of a clamp supporter placed along such a beam. |
Variable Reluctance Based | [39,40,41,42] | They vary the force between two tuning magnets, and hence the stiffness of the structure, by means of the variation of the position of a magnetically permeable moveable flux guide placed between them. |
Variable Center of Gravity Based | [43,44,45,46,47,48,49] | They exploit the fact that in a cantilever with a tip mass it is possible to change the resonance frequency of the structure by varying the position of the center of gravity. |
Reference | [7] | [8,9] | [10] | [11] | [12,13] |
RVEH | P | E | P | E | E |
Direction | BOTH | LEFT | BOTH | RIGHT | RIGHT |
fopt | 26.2 Hz | 223.1 Hz (2) | 61 Hz | 4.7 Hz | 67.6 Hz |
ΔfR | 22.14% | 42.6% | 91.5% | 45% | |
ΔfL | 16.03% | 15.5% | 16.4% | ||
PMAX | 280 µW | 8.45 µW | NOT PROVIDED (3) | 800 µW | 156.6 µW |
Avib | 80 mg | 125 mg | 10 mg | 60 mg | |
ΔPR | −14.29% | NOT DEFINED (4) | −60.7% | ||
ΔPL | −3.57% | −23.91% | |||
Implementation | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL |
Actuation | MANUAL | MANUAL | MANUAL | AUTOMATIC | AUTOMATIC |
Control | OPEN-LOOP | CLOSED-LOOP | |||
Supply | PASSIVE | PASSIVE | |||
Tuning Period | 320 s (1) | NOT PROVIDED | NOT PROVIDED | 217 s (5) | 230 s (6) |
Vibrations | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL |
Reference | [21,22] | [23,24] | [25,26] |
RVEH | E (1) | E | P |
Direction | BOTH | BOTH | LEFT |
fopt | 299 Hz | 78 Hz | 190 Hz |
ΔfR | 8% | 14.1% | |
ΔfL | 10.7% | 15.4% | 21% |
PMAX | 60 µW | 1.4 mW | 50 μW |
Avib | 1 g | NOT PROVIDED (3) | 0.6 g |
ΔPR | −16.7% | NOT DEFINED (4) | |
ΔPL | 16.7% | NOT DEFINED (4) | −60% |
Implementation | ELECTRICAL | ELECTRICAL | ELECTRICAL |
Actuation | MANUAL | AUTOMATIC | AUTOMATIC |
Control | CLOSED-LOOP | OPEN-LOOP (6) | |
Supply | SEMI-ACTIVE | SEMI-ACTIVE | SEMI-ACTIVE |
Tuning Period | 20 s (2) | NOT PROVIDED (5) | 22.8 s (7) |
Vibrations | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL |
Reference | [30] | [31] | [32,33] | [34] |
RVEH | P | P | P | P |
Direction | LEFT | BOTH | BOTH | BOTH |
fopt | 250 Hz | 212 Hz | 380 Hz | 29.1 Hz |
ΔfR | 10.8% | 4.5% | 112.6% (5) | |
ΔfL | 20% | 62.3% | 23.2% | 79.4% (5) |
PMAX | 400 μW | 40 μW (1) | NOT PROVIDED (4) | 368.9 μW (5) |
Avib | 1 g | 0.35 g | 1 g | |
ΔPR | −25% (2) | −80.8% (5) | ||
ΔPL | −25% | −12.5% (3) | −67.3% (5) | |
Implementation | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL |
Actuation | MANUAL | MANUAL | MANUAL | MANUAL |
Control | ||||
Supply | ||||
Tuning Period | NOT PROVIDED | NOT PROVIDED | NOT PROVIDED | NOT PROVIDED |
Vibrations | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL |
Reference | [37] | [38] |
RVEH | P | P |
Direction | BOTH | BOTH |
fopt | 580 Hz (1) | 121 Hz (1) |
ΔfR | 69% (2) | 48.8% |
ΔfL | 60.3% (2) | 29.8% |
PMAX | 22 μW (2) | NOT PROVIDED (4) |
Avib | 0.1 g | |
ΔPR | NOT DEFINED (3) | |
ΔPL | NOT DEFINED (3) | |
Implementation | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL |
Actuation | MANUAL | AUTOMATIC |
Control | OPEN LOOP (5) | |
Supply | PASSIVE | |
Tuning Period | NOT PROVIDED | NOT PROVIDED |
Vibrations | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL |
Reference | [39] | [41] | [42] |
RVEH | E | Hybrid P-E | P |
Direction | LEFT | BOTH | RIGHT |
fopt | 63.6 Hz | 33.5 Hz | 102.5 Hz |
ΔfR | 85.1% | 12.8% | |
ΔfL | 21.7% | 23.9% | |
PMAX | 166.2 µW | 2.78 mW | NOT PROVIDED (1) |
Avib | 0.85 g | 0.3 g | |
ΔPR | −42.9% | ||
ΔPL | −30.8% | −28.6% | |
Implementation | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL |
Actuation | MANUAL | MANUAL | MANUAL |
Control | |||
Supply | |||
Tuning Period | NOT PROVIDED | NOT PROVIDED | NOT PROVIDED |
Vibrations | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL |
Reference | [43] | [44] | [45,46] |
RVEH | P | P | P |
Direction | BOTH | RIGHT | RIGHT |
fopt | 160 Hz (1) | 42 Hz (3) | 21 Hz (4) |
ΔfR | 12.5% | 31% | 66.7% |
ΔfL | 18.75% | ||
PMAX | NOT PROVIDED (2) | 80 μW | 13.18 μW |
Avib | 0.03 g | 1.4 g | |
ΔPR | −43.7% | −69.7% | |
ΔPL | |||
Implementation | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL | MECHANICAL |
Actuation | MANUAL | MANUAL | AUTOMATIC |
Control | OPEN LOOP | ||
Supply | PASSIVE | ||
Tuning Period | NOT PROVIDED | NOT PROVIDED | (5) |
Vibrations | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL | SINUSOIDAL |
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Costanzo, L.; Vitelli, M. Tuning Techniques for Piezoelectric and Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters. Energies 2020, 13, 527. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13030527
Costanzo L, Vitelli M. Tuning Techniques for Piezoelectric and Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters. Energies. 2020; 13(3):527. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13030527
Chicago/Turabian StyleCostanzo, Luigi, and Massimo Vitelli. 2020. "Tuning Techniques for Piezoelectric and Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters" Energies 13, no. 3: 527. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13030527