Carbon-Negative Hydrogen Production (HyBECCS) from Organic Waste Materials in Germany: How to Estimate Bioenergy and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Basics
2.1. Organic Waste Classification in Germany
- Further use of the substance or object is certain;
- The substance or object can be used directly without any further processing other than normal industrial practice;
- The substance or object is produced as an integral part of a production process;
- Further use is lawful, i.e., the substance or object fulfills all relevant product, environmental, and health protection requirements for the specific use and will not lead to overall adverse environmental or human health impacts [(1),§4, KrWG].
2.2. Biohydrogen Production and the HyBECCS Approach
2.2.1. Biohydrogen Technologies
2.2.2. The HyBECCS Approach
2.3. Terminology and System Boundaries
- Societal variables (as general agreement whether certain feedstock should receive a generally preferred form of utilization).
- Technical variables (cultivation, harvest, recovery, and conversion technology).
- Demand for food and material utilization.
- Ecological/environmental variables (legal requirements to ensure a sustainable resource base).
3. Methodological Approach
3.1. Feedstock Selection
- -
- Step 1 Data validity, utilization pathways, and classification issues: According to Brosowski et al., data and information are inconsistent for 16 biomass categories (BCs) and no technical potential is presented for eight categories. Those classes are sorted out in this step. Moreover, many food industry wastes, such as coffee or tobacco residues, must be disposed of according to special regulations. Other biomass flows, such as residues from convenience food production, are highly heterogeneous and assumed not to contain large amounts of relevant contents [42] (Chapter 2). Thus, it is not possible to make reasonable assumptions about the composition and such material flows should not be considered for utilization. In this case, 32/93 BCs can be discarded in this step.
- -
- Step 2 Lignocellulosic biomass: Biomass categories containing wood or wood-like waste, straw, stalk, or other green waste are currently not suitable for some biotechnological processes, as they need to be readily biodegradable by microorganisms. Wood essentially consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which are poorly biodegradable without extensive pretreatment. Hence, they are rather unsuitable for fermentative processes [20] (p. 53); 28/93 BCs match this criterion and should be sorted out.
- -
- Step 3 Wastes of animal origin: Such wastes should not be considered for alternative use because of the potentially contagious material and an established industry for efficient utilization of animal origin wastes. Gaida et al. describe the utilization of this biomass as already optimized. For instance, animal skin is processed to leather, and protein-rich residues are processed into tankage or fertilizer. Other potential pathways are biodiesel production and utilization as substances in the oleochemical industry [42] (pp. 22, 24). However, if a special suitability can be derived for specific biohydrogen process options, a comparison with the respective reference processes might be of interest. If not, 2/93 BCs match this criterion and should be sorted out.
- -
- Step 4 Oils and fats: In a comprehensive evaluation of utilization pathways for this category, Fehrenbach et al. found that biodiesel production might be superior to other means of utilization [22] (pp. 112, 179). A comparison of the biohydrogen process under consideration with this form of use is therefore to be initiated. If the comparison is decided in favor of biodiesel production, another 2/93 BCs are sorted out in this step.
- -
- Step 5 Waste material untypical for fermentation: Some waste types can be considered as biomass, but are not readily biodegradable, such as textiles or packaging material. These must also be subjected to a special test to determine their suitability for biohydrogen production. If this test is negative, 2/93 BCs match this criterion and have to be sorted out.
- -
- Step 6 Animal feed or low sugar content: According to Section 2.1., material use of biomass should be preferred over energetic use in the case of animal feed, for instance. Hence, plenty of different process residues from the food industry cannot be seen as waste and are consequently not considered in this estimation of potential. Usage competition can arise if such materials are utilized energetically. Residues from the sugar industry would be perfectly suitable for fermentative biohydrogen processes, due to their sugar content. However, this material is widely used as animal feed, in the yeast industry, or in distilleries. The work of Gaida et al. indicates high-value material use for most food industry residues at present [42] (Section 2). However, dairy industry residues, which mostly consist of whey [42] (p. 40), are excluded from this step. The amount currently fed to pigs is found to be better used for human consumption, which mainly consists of the contained whey protein [43] (p. 271). The contained lactose, which is a substrate for homolactic fermentation, remains in the permeate after protein extraction, hence it can be considered. Other biomass categories, such as residues from alcohol production, must first be checked as to whether they contain significant amounts of utilizable substances for biohydrogen production. Finally, 17/93 BCs could be excluded in this step.
3.2. Definition of Assumptions and Framework Conditions
3.2.1. Substrate Pretreatment
- electric: Wel = 2.5 kWh/t ≙ 9 MJ/t (Wel = 2.1–2.3 kWh/m3 [45] (p. 105); assumed substrate density 1000 kg/m3);
- thermal: Wth = 18 kWh/t ≙ 64.8 MJ/t.
3.2.2. Process Energy Demand
3.2.3. Logistics, Substrate Storage, and Handling of Residues
3.2.4. Produce Gas Separation
3.3. Calculation of Energy Potential
3.4. Negative Emission Potential Estimation
4. Discussion
5. Summary and Prospect
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Number | Process | Reaction |
---|---|---|
(1.1) | Biomass pyrolysis | CnHm → n C + 0.5 m H2 |
(1.2) | Glucose formation | 6 H2O + 6 CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 |
(1.3) | Enzymatic hydrogen generation | C6H12O6 + 6 H2O → 6 CO2 + 12 H2 |
(1.4) | Microbial electrolysis (acetate) | CH3COO− + 4 H2O → 2 HCO3− + H+ + 4 H2 |
(1.5) | Photo-fermentation (acetic acid) | CH3COOH + 2 H2O → 4 H2 + 2 CO2 |
(1.6) | Acidogenesis (butyric acid) | C6H12O6 →CH3CH2CH2COOH + 2 CO2 + 2 H2 |
Method | Energy Demand | ||
---|---|---|---|
Symbol | Name | Wel in MJ/t | Wth in MJ/t |
(G) | Grinding | 8.9 | 0 * |
(H) | Hygienization | 9 | 43.2 |
(TCH) | Thermochemical hydrolysis | 9 | 64.8 |
(AS) | Anaerobic storage | 0 * | 0 * |
(HLF) | Homolactic fermentation | 0 * | 0 * |
Biomass Category | Pretreatment | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(G) | (H) | (TCH) | (AS) | (HLF) | |
Cattle manure and slurry | x | x | |||
Pig manure and slurry | x | x | |||
Cattle dung | x | x | x | ||
Pig dung | x | x | x | ||
Organic household waste | x | x | |||
Kitchen and canteen waste | x | x | |||
Waste from markets | x | x | |||
Dairy industry residues | x | x | |||
Organic fraction of MSW | x | x | |||
Commercial food waste | x | x |
Energy Carrier | References | ||
---|---|---|---|
Natural gas (NG) | 47.4 3 | 56 | [54] (p. 138) |
Coke (C) | 27.6 | 105 | [54] (p. 138) |
Hard coal (HC) | 28.3 | 93 | [54] (p. 138) |
Heavy fuel oil (HFO) | 39.5 | 81 | [54] (p. 138) |
H2 steam reforming (SR) 1 | 120 | 67 | [36] (p. 239) [55] (Table 1) |
H2 electrolysis electricity mix (EM) 2 | 120 | 83 | |
H2 electrolysis renewables (REN) 2 | 120 | 0 |
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Full, J.; Trauner, M.; Miehe, R.; Sauer, A. Carbon-Negative Hydrogen Production (HyBECCS) from Organic Waste Materials in Germany: How to Estimate Bioenergy and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential. Energies 2021, 14, 7741. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227741
Full J, Trauner M, Miehe R, Sauer A. Carbon-Negative Hydrogen Production (HyBECCS) from Organic Waste Materials in Germany: How to Estimate Bioenergy and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential. Energies. 2021; 14(22):7741. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227741
Chicago/Turabian StyleFull, Johannes, Mathias Trauner, Robert Miehe, and Alexander Sauer. 2021. "Carbon-Negative Hydrogen Production (HyBECCS) from Organic Waste Materials in Germany: How to Estimate Bioenergy and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential" Energies 14, no. 22: 7741. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227741