Social Learning for Energy Transition—A Literature Review

Abstract

With increasing concerns regarding environmental sustainability, energy transition has emerged as a vital subtopic in transition studies. Such socio-technical transition requires social learning, which, however, is poorly conceptualized and explained in transition research. This paper overviews transition research on social learning. It attempts to portray how social learning has been studied in the context of energy transition and how research could be advanced. Due to the underdevelopment of the field, this paper employs a narrative review method. The review indicates two clusters of studies, which portray both direct and indirect links concerning the phenomena. The overview reveals that social learning is a force in energy transition and may occur at different levels of analysis, i.e., micro, meso, and macro, as well as different orders of learning. The author proposes to develop the academic research on the topic through quantitative and mixed-methods research as well as contributions and insights from disciplines other than sociology and political science. Some relevant topics for further inquiry can be clustered around: orders of social learning and their antecedents in energy transition; boundary-spanning roles in social learning in the context of energy transition; social learning triggered by stories about energy transition; and other theoretical underpinnings of energy transition research on social learning.

1. Introduction

The energy sector plays a vital role in contemporary societies, since it contributes to their socioeconomic development and well-being. With increasing concerns regarding environmental sustainability, policies directed at the energy sector have moved toward more efficient technologies and clean energy resources that call for energy transition [1,2,3]. For European Union countries, the European Commission indicated the goals for the energy transition up to 2030 and 2050 in the regulations of 2019 [4]. They laid the regulatory foundations for the so-called socio-technical transition of the energy sector in the member states, as energy transition should be understood [5,6,7]. It is a transition “that requires the co-evolution of social, economic, political, and technical factors” [8] as well as social learning [9]. Social learning, that is, an interactive and dynamic process of knowledge creation and acquisition among various societal actors through social interactions [10], is especially emphasized in research on the socio-technical transition process that leads to enhanced system sustainability [10,11,12,13,14,15]. Yet, in the view of Scholz and Mehner, “it remains weakly conceptualized and elaborated in transition research” [3] (p. 323). Moreover, Mierlo and Beers claim that “well-established research fields related to learning are broadly ignored or loosely applied” in transition studies [15] (p. 255). Nevertheless, social learning is an essential factor in the socio-technical transition process since it induces indispensable changes in actors’ norms, values, goals, and operational procedures. These changes govern the decision-making processes and actions necessary to turn ideas into daily practice [11,13].

In the context of the energy sector, the topic of social learning appears to be even less developed. This paper intends to demonstrate this research gap. It critically reviews the available research on social learning for energy transition, and attempts to portray how social learning has been studied in the context of energy transition and how research could be advanced in order to expand the domain of transition studies. The specific questions that the review answers are as follows: (1) Is social learning defined in a reviewed study, and, if so, how? What is the role of social learning? (2) In what context are social learning and energy transition studied in the reviewed research? (3) Does the reviewed study show links between social learning and energy transition, and if so, what are they? and (4) Which questions in the study remain unanswered with regard to social learning in the context of energy transition?

Due to the scant research on the issue that is currently available, this paper applies a narrative review method, which allows the advancement of conclusions from a limited number of various types of studies, including empirical and conceptual work. Such a review should not only summarize works but also develop “original thinking that builds on an integration of the literature reviewed” [16] (p. 186) and is feasible for a single researcher. It ought to propose conclusions on how to further expand the field. Thus, the current review also attempts to address the question of how the links between social learning and energy transition can be approached in future research. It may advance transition studies with regard to energy transition and social learning.

In the next section, the paper first briefly portrays the frames for the studied phenomenon delineated by the domain of transition research. Furthermore, it explains the methodological approach for the selection of studies for the review. It briefly sums up each work and groups them into two clusters. It also attempts to address the aforementioned specific questions and advances conclusions concerning what we know about social learning for energy transition, what we still do not know in that respect, and how the field can be developed in the future. The review expands the existent knowledge of transition studies.

2. Transition Studies

We have been able to observe the rapid growth of transition studies over recent years [17]. The domain is concerned with transitions, i.e., wide-ranging, fundamental, structural changes of various socio-technical systems, such as the energy, transportation, food, and health systems. Hence, the topic of energy transition is discussed in transition studies. The field is interdisciplinary and has been developed by researchers from the fields of sociology, political science, economics, psychology, management, engineering, geography, and philosophy. It tackles the issues of “governance, power and politics, civil society, culture and social movements” [17] (p. 5) in regard to system transitions. The domain has adopted many theoretical backgrounds designed for transition studies, i.e., the multi-level-perspective framework, strategic niche management, transition management and technological innovation systems [18], yet many authors have developed unique theoretical approaches by combining perspectives from different disciplines [17]. Qualitative methods, especially the case study method, have been mainly used to address research questions in transition studies.

Zolfagharian et al. [17] indicate that transition studies have recently been enriched by focusing on other factors influencing transition processes which, although critical, have been overlooked in prior research. Social learning appears to be such a factor [15]. Mierlo and Beers [15] notice that transition studies quite often mention the term social learning, which is not surprising, since social learning shares many similarities with transition studies, namely: the multi-stakeholder approach, the focus on structural change, and the diverse time horizons. Despite this, transition scholars have seldom adopted theories of social learning, differentiated between outcomes and processes of social learning, or investigated certain negative effects, such as learning to resist change. The following review of energy transition studies on social learning leads to similar conclusions.

3. Method

This review provides a narrative, critical synthesis of various types of research around the topic of social learning in the context of energy transition. It attempts to portray how social learning has been studied in the energy transition setting and how research could be advanced. There are four specific questions that the review intends to answer: (1) Is social learning defined in a reviewed study, and if so, how? What is the role of social learning? (2) In what context are social learning and energy transition studied in the reviewed research? (3) Does the reviewed study show links between social learning and energy transition, and if so, what are they? (4) Which questions in the study remain unanswered with regard to social learning in the context of energy transition?

Despite its narrative character, the review protocol was guided by the PRISMA 2020 checklist [19]—see Figure 1.

Two databases were used as search engines, namely Scopus and the Web of Science, since both allow a search strategy based on simultaneous searching for published, peer-reviewed studies according to a set of keywords in the paper’s title, keywords, and abstract. The following keywords were applied: “social learning” AND “energy transition”. The aim behind this search strategy was to find studies that place sufficient emphasis on the links between social learning and energy transition. Thus, any research that did not mention both pairs of words in either the title, abstract or paper keywords was excluded from the analysis as irrelevant in terms of the aim of the paper. Moreover, both databases were searched as they include top-tier journals with a strong impact on various fields of science. Additionally, these databases index and provide references to papers across the sciences collected in other academic search engines, e.g., Whiley, ScienceDirect, or SpringerLink.

In the search strategy, studies were excluded if they were not published as peer-reviewed papers or in a language other than English (as it limits their international readership). The search strategy was not limited to any specific field due to the interdisciplinary nature of transition studies, nor to a time period.

The search provided only 17 unique records after duplicates from both databases had been removed. In the initial screening of the results, four records were eliminated (one paper was written in German, one record was a working paper, one paper provides references to social learning in the main text only, and another was a book chapter). As a result, 14 papers were retrieved and analyzed for eligibility, and subsequently included in the review (see

Table 1. Journals where studies were published.

Journal Name	Number of Published Works on the Topic
Energy Research & Social Science	6
Environmental Policy and Governance	1
Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy	1
Energy, Sustainability and Society	1
Technological Forecasting & Social Change	1
Sustainability	1
Futures	1
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy	1
Ri-Vista	1

).

4. Results

This section discusses the overall characteristics of the reviewed papers and how they approached social learning in the context of energy transition. It also indicates directions for the development of scholarship.

4.1. Basic Characteristics of Studies

The reviewed papers were published from 2017–2021, whereas in 2021, there were five studies released, four in 2017, two in 2020 and 2018, and one in 2019. The authors mainly used the journal Energy Research & Social Science for the dissemination of their research (see Table 1).

After reading the entire text of each paper, nine out of fourteen were classified as studies that directly tackle social learning in the context of energy transition, and the remaining five as those where the topic is not treated as a primary thread (see

Table 2. Studies on social learning in the context of energy transition.

Authors	Study Type and Sample	Scientific Discipline and Theoretical Background/Approach	Study Aim, Basic Assumptions and Context	Social Learning Definition and Its Role In Study	Social Learning and Energy Transition Links	Potential Future Studies
studies that directly tackle social learning in the context of energy transition
Mah et al., 2021 [20]	qualitative research based on a case study of a national deliberative poll on energy conducted in Japan in 2012	public management, nuclear governance; deliberative participation theory, social learning theory	to develop a learning-oriented framework to evaluate deliberative participation under the influence of pre-existing government-industry-citizen relations as a key contextual factor; citizens’ involvement in deliberative processes helps them learn and progress to higher-order learning; political contextual factors may constrain social learning in deliberative processes, while social learning can create forces for energy transition; Japanese nuclear sector	social learning is presented as an intentional collective process of self-reflection that occurs through interaction and dialogue among diverse stakeholders; the paper emphasizes its role as one of the outcomes of deliberative participation and “an analytical lens to understanding the new roles of citizens and the changing relationships between citizens, governments, and the nuclear industry in energy governance” (p. 126); the paper analyzes three orders of social learning, i.e., instrumental learning, communicative learning, and transformative learning	all three orders of learning were achieved via deliberative participation processes; access to multiple information sources, diverse perspectives, and dialogic processes were instrumental in the progress to higher orders of learning; deliberative participation can improve nuclear governance by fostering higher-orders of social learning of citizens	the extent to which social learning outcomes in deliberative participation affect actual energy transition in other countries and other energy subsectors; contextual factors that influence social learning in deliberative participation in a given country and other energy subsectors
Boyle et al., 2021 [10]	empirical paper based on participatory action research; participants in a workshop	social science, geography studies; a participatory action research approach, social network analysis	to show the application of a participatory mapping method of social network analysis in a participatory action research manner for investigating a multi-stakeholder approach to sustainable and just transitions; a regional transition project in Ireland	social learning occurs through the interaction between different actors and refers to new knowledge, practices and perspectives when a common problem is addressed; it is central to participatory action research	social learning was facilitated through the mapping process as a participatory action research intervention; the depth of social learning can increase as a result of the diversity of the stakeholder perspective	quantitative analysis of social networks and social learning directed toward energy transition; the extent of various orders of social learning in the mapping process
Matschoss et al., 2021 [21]	empirical paper based on a real-life experiment, a mixed- methods research design, over 200 households in eight countries	living labs studies; theories of practice	to examine: (1) differences in design, interactions and performance between individual and community living labs, (2) whether the community and individual living labs provided different results, (3) how the creation of a change-oriented community supports social learning; households in eight European countries	social learning is addressed as participation in the practices of a community that leads to changes in individuals in a wider social context; it is an explanatory mechanism of differences in the results obtained; it is a key factor in change initiatives	community living labs reported higher engagement in change of practices than individual living labs; the former offered more opportunities (interacting and learning from other households) to reflect on practices and values concerning them, which reinforced engagement and contributed to changes in practices and related values	the role of social learning in creating engagement in energy transition processes; cultural differences in social learning experienced in community living labs vs. individual living labs; the extent to which changes in practices are lasting
Matschoss and Repo, 2020 [22]	empirical study based on network analysis; 113 energy-related pilot projects, demonstrations, field trials and local experiments; Finland	innovation studies, sustainability transition studies; sociology of expectations theory, the multi-level-perspective framework	to review a large collection of energy experiments from Finland (…) in order to examine how they connect in terms of technologies, settings and uses” (p. 2); Finland	social learning is portrayed as a truly experimentational process within the multi-level-perspective framework	the study identifies four clusters of sustainable energy networks (i.e., patchworks of niches) in the Finnish energy system	an analysis of various orders of learning within and between patchworks of niches in a given energy system
Picchi et al., 2020 [23]	conceptual paper that exemplifies the idea in the context of training civil servants	landscape architecture, adult learning; an artistic perspective	“to reflect on potential synergistic links between landscape architecture research through design and training civil servants” [15] (p. 199); landscape architects are boundary spanners enabling knowledge exchange in training civil servants to support energy transition; the municipality of Amsterdam	social learning is described as one of the orientations in adult learning that is focused on the social context of learning; this orientation can be linked with constructivist orientation through research through design	a social learning environment and constructivist research through a design approach are linked; the latter can enhance energy transition through capacity building	the role of landscape architects as boundary spanners in social learning for energy transition
Milchram et al., 2019 [14]	conceptual paper that proposes a dynamic framework for institutional change	social science, political science, energy system studies; moral philosophy, institutional economics, and social psychology	to propose a dynamic framework for institutional change that combines the institutional analysis and development framework with the concept of social learning; various energy systems	social learning is defined as change regarding understanding that encompasses wider social units and happens through social interactions among individuals within social networks; participatory processes can stimulate social learning; the study refers to single-, double-, or triple-loop learning and signifies triple-loop learning, i.e., changes in the existing exogenous variables, as fundamental to structural transition	the outcome of the paper is a dynamic framework for institutional change which stresses that social learning is instrumental in a change process and can be triggered by value controversies; consequently, such controversies may be expressed in social interaction which further induce double- and triple-loop learning	empirical studies on how different values become relevant triggered by social learning and how this influences the change of a given energy system
Proka et al., 2018 [24]	empirical paper that employs action research; 15 people: representatives of renewable energy cooperatives, energy suppliers, and the national knowledge platform	energy transition studies, transition management studies; transition theory	to identify the outcomes of the strategic dialogue and “the ability of transition management to build reflexive and strategic capacity through social learning” (p. 3); renewable energy cooperatives in the Netherlands	social learning is “a process in which people exchange and discuss knowledge and ideas about what they perceive as reality, and as a result, they get new insights, develop shared mental models, form new relationships, and develop the capacity for collective action” (p. 3); a transition management process has the potential to “facilitate social learning, reflection and the development of collective agendas by synergizing individual goals” (p. 5)	the transformative potential of the cooperative energy movement is limited as actors failed to collectively strategize incumbent regimes systematically; yet, they were able to indicate the challenges and difficulties of moving beyond the niche	the extent of various orders of social learning in cooperative energy movements and their role in energy transition
Pellicer-Sifresa et al., 2018 [25]	qualitative research based on a single case study with a mixture of research techniques	grassroots social movement research, adult education; leaning in social action theory, strategic niche management theory	to explore the role of social learning in promoting transformative strategies towards sustainability; a renewable energy cooperative in Spain	social learning is conceptualized as learning through involvement in social actions; the authors indicate first- and second-order learning, the latter is key for transformative developments, and thus is known as transformative learning	micropolitical and macro-political factors drive the emergence of first- and second-order learning, which further shape three different strategies proposed by the studied grassroots initiative; the various types of learning determine strategies to sustainability that reflect different core values	the extent to which the various types of learning model not only transformative strategies but also the subsequent real actions
Skjolsvold et al., 2017 [26]	qualitative research based on in-depth video interviews with nine households	social science, science and technology studies; theories of practice, yet not directly mentioned in the paper	“to explore how feedback technologies are made sense of, how they become interwoven with existing and new practices in everyday life”, (p. 2); the act of consuming electricity is collective, involves all inhabitants and their practices; households in Norway	social learning is not defined; smart technology becomes a part of daily household activities and is interwoven in learning	the study identifies four processes that feedback technology initiates; these re-arrangements entail learning and can support transformative actions	the extent to which domestication of new technologies involves various orders of social learning and how it relates to energy transition
Edmoah et al., 2017 [9]	theoretical review of studies on energy infrastructure supply	social science; theories: techno-economics, social psychology, theories of practice, institutions, socio-technical transitions	“to critically review different understandings of the various factors, elements, processes and systems involved in the energy supply infrastructure provision” (p. 765)	social learning is identified as an effectiveness factor of socio-technical transition	the paper identifies five theoretical perspectives in studies on energy infrastructure supply; social learning is a cornerstone of socio-technical transitions theory	the extent to which social learning can be analyzed from different theoretical perspectives than socio-technical transitions
studies that indirectly tackle social learning in the context of energy transition
Groves et al., 2021 [27]	qualitative study based on expert interviews; flexible integrated energy systems project in Wales	science and technology studies; socio-technical transition theory	to find out how the local social and geographical context of demonstrator projects shape how experts understand the credibility of future visions of energy systems; credibility of visions of energy systems is a prerequisite of energy transition; Wales	although not directly defined, social learning, in the authors’ view, explains the results and calls for further studies; the paper uses reflexivity and critical reflection terms, also not defined anywhere in the text; social learning is seen as “an effect of the inclusion of non-experts (…) in the assessment of proposed demonstrator projects and the visions attached to them” (p. 102753)	social learning enforces the development of visions for demonstrators and refers to place and societal values that are overlooked in systemic visions; such social learning can include critical reflection concerning key assumptions underlying dominant system-level visions	effective stakeholder engagement with visions to facilitate reflection; the extent to which social learning is possible through the development of potential technological niches
Sillak et al., 2021 [28]	conceptual study that shows the application of a framework to an energy transition project in an urban context in Denmark	public management, strategic management planning; collaborative approaches	to critically review co-creation and other selected collaborative approaches in order to develop an assessment framework for co-creation in strategic planning for energy transitions; a municipality in Denmark	social learning is not directly defined, yet it is included as one of the activities that foster transformative power in co-creation; the study refers and defines two orders of social learning	the outcome of the study is an assessment framework for co-creation in strategic planning for energy transitions where social learning is among a set of activities in the co-creation process	the role of social learning among other activities in the co-creation process for energy transition; interplay among different activities and social learning in co-creation; the role of social learning in different phases of co-creation
Darby, 2017 [29]	qualitative study of households based on interviews and observations; 12 interviewees	energy policy studies, transition research; theoretical background is not specified	“to let some voices speak to the reader and encourage reflection on the places, resources and experiences that inevitably influence the understanding, form and timing of energy transitions” (p. 122); households in Scotland	although included in the paper’s keywords, social learning is not defined in the study and intermittently referred to; energy transition can emerge from social learning; energy transition operates at many levels; transition is a non-uniform process influenced by geography and history	“housing, climate, demographics and social networks, all place-specific, are important in influencing how energy is captured and used” (p. 126); the study reveals ‘learning stories’ in everyday transition	the role of personal and organisational energy stories in shaping energy transition; energy advice serves as a boundary spanner in energy transition
Akizu et al., 2017 [30]	qualitative research based on multiple case studies; Spain, Germany, Cuba, Ecuador and Brazil	political studies, environmental studies, engineering studies, transition studies; socio-technical transition theory	“to identify some of the socio-cultural, economic, political or technological key factors bringing about different multi-scale transitions towards low-energy societies throughout the world” (p. 18047); transition models in Spain, Germany, Cuba, Ecuador and Brazil	social learning is neither defined nor analyzed in the study; it is recommended as a way of using knowledge from the case studies to inform energy transition	the paper proposes a democratized, universal energy model complemented with social aims, i.e., based on equitability and community	quantitative and qualitative research on the role of social learning in “the diversity and direction of ongoing and future energy transitions around the world” (p. 18060)
Asayama and Ishii, 2017 [31]	qualitative research based on discourse analysis, storylines; 191 newspaper articles; Japan	media studies, policy studies; discourse theory	“to discuss how narratives can contribute to determining what is politically plausible and desirable (…) regarding carbon capture and storage”, (p. 51); Japan	social learning is not defined in the paper; social learning about carbon capture and storage should be enhanced by media; social learning is determined by cultural representations and intermediaries, included e.g., in news media stories	all identified storylines are strongly in favor of carbon capture and storage, boosting optimism and ignoring risk	various orders of social learning about energy transition fostered by news media stories

).

The authors approached the topic through mainly qualitative studies; one research paper was a mixed-methods study, three papers were conceptual and one was a theoretical review. In terms of the methods used for data collection, three papers reported data from interviews, three from case studies (two from a single case study and one from multiple case studies), and in two papers, the authors presented the results of action research and two network analyses; moreover, other studies used observation and experiments. Two papers analyzed and compared data from more than one country [21,30].

All the studies conducted refer to various disciplines within social science; however, two of them are the most influential, i.e., sociology and political science. The authors locate their studies in different areas, e.g., public management studies [20,28], landscape studies [10], innovation studies [21,22,25], or adult education research [23]. Transition studies are represented in most of the papers [22,24,27,29,30].

The theoretical background is not always revealed in the research, yet transition theory, especially socio-technical transition and the multi-level perspective [22,25,30], has substantiated most studies [22,24,27,29,30] and appears as a cutting-edge theory in energy transition studies. This is not surprising because transition theory focuses “on determining social movements and social innovations [and its] effectiveness is measured by legitimacy and social learning” [9] (p. 776).

The context of the study varied significantly and referred to the macro (e.g., the socio-cultural, technological, economic or political factors [20,30]), meso (e.g., the socio-technical regimes [27], and micro-contexts (e.g., niches [22,24]), practices and interlinked actors [10,21,22,26]).

4.2. Social Learning: Concept and Role in the Study

First and foremost, it needs to be stressed that the confined number of studies defines social learning [14,20,21,24] and one paper refers to its single order—transformative learning [25]. The authors of three papers [14,20,21] refer to a definition of social learning proposed by Reed et al. [32], who perceive it as learning through social interaction that requires reflection and leads to changes in understanding, attitudes, beliefs, and values. Yet studies that do not define social learning portray it as learning in social interactions as well [10,14]. Such learning has an impact on the wider social context and involves sharing ideas, knowledge, and experiences among individuals. Proka et al. [24] also highlight knowledge exchange in their definition of social learning.

In addition, Pellicer et al. describe social learning as learning in a social action process and indicate its two orders (i.e., instrumental—learning how to do something, and transformative learning—“changes in mental frames and assumptions”) [25] (p. 102). Likewise, other studies distinguish distinct kinds (or levels, loops, or orders) of social learning. Mah et al. [20] analyze three orders of learning, i.e., instrumental learning (acquiring new knowledge or skills), communicative learning (understanding and reinterpreting knowledge through deliberative processes), and transformative learning (reflecting on the underlying assumptions that lead to a change in perceived values). In their study, they proved that deliberative participation processes supported all three orders of learning and identified factors that enabled progress to higher orders of learning (see Table 2).

Transformative learning (here the second order of learning) is separately investigated in research by Pellicer et al. [25], who emphasize its reflective character. Their study shows that both micropolitical and macropolitical factors influenced the emergence of first- and second-order learning, which then modeled three different sustainability strategies proposed by the grassroots initiatives studied. References to first and second-order learning can also be found in a study by Sillak et al. [28]. In view of this research, first-order learning allows an understanding of how a goal can be achieved, while second-order learning is more reflective and leads to a determination of which goals are worth achieving. The authors formulate an assessment framework for co-creation in strategic planning for energy transitions that involves social learning as an activity in the co-creation process.

Transformative learning, according to Reed et al., is associated with double-loop learning that assumes “reflecting on the assumptions which underlie our actions” [32] (p. 4). In their conceptual study, Milchram et al. [14] proposed a dynamic framework for institutional change that is instrumental in energy transition, which includes double- and triple-loop (changes in the existing exogenous variables) learning. In their framework, controversies concerning values can be expressed in social interaction and stimulate double- and triple-loop social learning, both of which may be decisive in transition processes driven by institutional change.

With regard to the role of social learning, the reviewed research demonstrates that social learning is a key element in change or transition processes [9,14,21,24,25,26,28,29,30] as well as being vital from a participatory perspective [10,14,20]. It can also be identified as one of the orientations in adult learning, which is particularly needed in energy transition [23].

4.3. Social Learning and Energy Transition—Direct and Indirect Links

As a starting point, one remark ought to be made. The research regarding social learning for energy transition is mainly based on rather scant qualitative studies and a few conceptual studies; as such, implying antecedent variables and outcomes of social learning is inappropriate. An absence of quantitative studies is noticeable. Nevertheless, the reviewed research allows for an understanding of how the authors relate both phenomena.

4.3.1. Direct Links

The cluster of studies on the direct links between social learning and energy transition includes nine works, namely six empirical papers, two conceptual papers, and one theoretical paper.

Mah et al. [20] link social learning and energy transition through citizens’ participation in deliberative processes. The study suggests that all the orders of learning observed in deliberative processes can create forces for energy transition.

Boyle et al. [10] and Proka et al. [24] connect social learning with energy transition through action research. Social learning can be stimulated by action research, leading to more sustainable and just transition [10] or strategizing incumbent regimes [24]. Regarding the latter, a study by Proka et al. [24] did not confirm the links.

Matschoss et al. [21] hold that energy transition can be achieved through change initiatives concerning practices and related values and studied whether more extensive social learning in community living labs is conducive to engagement in the change process. In another study, Matschoss and Repo [22] identified patchworks of niches directed toward energy transition in Finland and claim that social learning can be developed through interconnections and experimentation therein.

Pellicer et al. [25] studied grassroots initiatives and assumed that energy transition requires various sustainability strategies, which, in turn, are shaped by first- and second-order learning driven by micropolitical (concerning a niche) and macropolitical factors (concerning landscape and niche-regime interactions).

Skjolsvold et al. [26] analyzed how “smart” energy feedback technologies can be helpful in the quest for energy transition in households. They identified four processes, which they labeled re-arrangements (concerning knowledge, materials, social relations and routines), triggered by feedback technology. These processes involve learning which can support transformative actions.

Picci et al. [23], in their conceptual work, analyze training civil servants from the adult learning perspective and analyze different orientations in adult education. They posit that a social learning environment presents synergistic links with constructivist research through a design approach that can enhance energy transition through capacity building. Another conceptual study by Milchram et al. [14] links social learning and energy transition through the Institutional Analysis and Development framework extended with feedback loops of social learning. They contend that value controversies can initiate social learning processes that may eventually bring about structural change.

Finally, Edomah et al. [9] focus on the theoretical underpinnings of changes in energy supply infrastructure, which can be perceived as a component of energy transition. The relationship between social learning and energy transition can be determined from the socio-technical transition perspective, which sees social learning as an effectiveness factor in social movements and social innovations.

4.3.2. Indirect Links

This cluster encompasses four empirical works and one conceptual paper.

Groves et al. [27] analyze how the credibility of energy system visions was achieved and posit that social learning is part of the process of the development of visions for demonstrators. Social learning concerns local values, a factor frequently missing in systemic visions, and critical reflections about key assumptions underlying dominant system-level visions.

The idea of energy transition as a non-uniform process influenced by geography and history as well as operating at many levels is underlined in a study by Darby [29], who portrayed ‘learning stories’ in the everyday energy transition of households in Scotland.

Social learning as a way of using knowledge from existing cases on energy transition to inform future cases is suggested by Akizu et al. [30]. After comparing different paths of energy transition in the South and the North, they recommend a democratized, universal energy model.

The last empirical study in this cluster, conducted by Asayama and Ishii [31], is based on discourse analysis and relates to news media storylines concerning carbon capture and storage. They hold that energy transition in part of a chosen technology can be influenced by news media stories. Therefore, they posit that media should enhance social learning about a given project.

The only conceptual study in this cluster, by Sillak et al. [28], proposes a framework to assess co-creation in strategic planning for energy transition. Social learning is included in this framework as one of the activities that foster transformative power in co-creation.

4.4. Possible Directions for the Development of Inquiry

This review allows the researcher to form an initial conclusion, namely, that energy transition research on social learning shares a similar methodological concern with the sustainability transition subfield and transition studies in general, which indicates directions for the development of this scholarship. In all these fields of study, qualitative research designs dominate over quantitative and mixed-method approaches [7,17]. The studies “struggle to connect with disciplines leaning more on quantitative methods (…) and to generate generic insights beyond single cases” [7] (p. 172). Hence, quantitative and mixed-methods research may offer promising prospects for energy transition research on social learning, e.g., a quantitative analysis of social networks and social learning directed toward energy transition or how the diversity of various stakeholders of energy systems facilitates different orders of learning. Nevertheless, by the very nature of energy transition and social learning, quantitative approaches may not fit all types of posited research questions.

Second, although the scholarship is interdisciplinary, to date it has been dominated by two disciplines, sociology and political science. Contributions and insights from other disciplines, such as psychology or management, could also be beneficial. Examples may include the psychological study of the social learning of pro-environmental behaviors and their role in energy transition, green servant leaders as role models in energy transition, the organizational approach to studying superficial social learning in niches, the role of unlearning in social learning, or the occurrence of social learning to resist changes, etc.

Third, the overview of the research enabled the identification of potential avenues for future research inspired by each included study (Table 2, in the column “potential future studies”) that can be clustered around a few streams:

• Comparative cross-country or cross-sectoral energy transition research on social learning;
• Orders of social learning:
  • and their antecedents in energy transition;
  • in niches, regimes, and landscapes;
  • in social movements for energy transition;
  • in social innovations for energy transition;
  • in the domestication of new technologies for energy transition;
• Boundary-spanning roles of various actors in social learning in the context of energy transition;
• Social learning triggered by stories about energy transition.
• Other theoretical underpinnings of energy transition research on social learning, e.g., the study of how social interactions affect the behavior of energy users inspired by Bandura’s social learning theory [33], or research on the conditions facilitating social unlearning in energy transition projects underpinned by organizational learning theory.

4.5. Summary of Narrative Review

To recap, based on the studies reviewed, social learning is a crucial force in energy transition that requires the structural change of energy systems, and social learning can promote it. It may occur at different levels of analysis, i.e., micro, meso and macro, and is embedded in social interactions, which may expose controversies concerning values. Social learning facilitates critical reflections about key underlying visions of energy systems. It can support sustainable and just energy transition as it shapes sustainability strategies. Such learning may enable transformative actions triggered by feedback technology. In addition, social learning environments enhance energy transition through capacity building. Energy users may learn from others, while policymakers learn from existing cases about energy transition. Moreover, media can be involved in social learning to promote energy transition. Finally, social learning fosters the effectiveness of social movements and social initiatives engaged in the transition process.

To date, social learning has been observed in participation processes, action research, change initiatives, and patchworks of niches. It is part of everyday transition. In addition, it is recommended as a transmission mechanism among various social actors concerning knowledge about energy transition strategies, visions, and values. However, future studies should further develop energy transition research on social learning since, in the view of the author, without a deep understanding of the role and antecedents of social learning in different contexts, turning transition ideas into daily practice may be complicated. The current research has insufficiently differentiated between the processes and outcomes of social learning, its conducive and hampering factors, the durability of changes, or learning to resist changes. Moreover, an imbalance between qualitative and quantitative research is visible. As suggested in another review study on transition research: “Extending the methodological toolbox beyond primarily qualitative process theories might lead to a better understanding of possible intervention strategies—and as such, greater policy impact” [17] (p. 12).

5. Conclusions

The field of transition studies is growing and energy transitions appear to be its main focal point [7]. Nonetheless, energy transition research on social learning is still sparse, as this overview has demonstrated, and further elaboration of previous research is necessary.

Concerning contributions, the review elaborates upon energy transition studies by showing how links between social learning and energy transition have been analyzed by scholars, which relationships have been identified in prior studies, which theoretical backgrounds have substantiated the studies, and what is still lacking in energy transition research on social learning. This approach allowed suggestions to be made pertaining to how the field can be advanced, i.e., through methodological and theoretical diversity, contributions and insights from more disciplines and research on some possible areas requiring more thorough investigation, as indicated above. More efforts have to be made to better understand social learning in energy transition. The review aims to inspire future empirical research, in which crossovers between transition studies and learning traditions are necessary.

The review informs practice and policymakers with respect to the critical role of social learning for energy transition, yet it also claims that the research field is underdeveloped. Concerning practical and political implications, the review indicates that diversity of stakeholders, through divergent perspectives and value controversies, can be conducive to social learning for energy transition and lead to higher orders of learning. However, political and contextual factors may constrain social learning in deliberative processes and should be addressed by appropriate policies. Furthermore, policymakers ought to enhance interactions and dialogue among diverse stakeholders, support their access to multiple information sources about energy transition, and involve various actors in discussions about visions of energy systems. Policymakers may enable the functioning of social movements and initiatives engaged in the transition because these grassroots forces create the conditions for social learning. Both practitioners and politicians should look for actors who can potentially play the role of boundary spanners in energy transition. Moreover, media should also be involved in social learning to promote the necessary changes.

Nevertheless, this review is also limited by the predefined search strategy, which excluded certain search engines, and consequently publications, from the analysis. A narrative review method chosen to analyze selected papers is also, by its very nature, subjective. The values and attitudes of the author could have affected the evaluation. Furthermore, narrative reviews are criticized for lacking synthesis and rigor [34], yet the author addressed this issue by applying the PRISMA checklist to the literature analysis. Nonetheless, the review should be subject to further advancements by other scholars.