Pulsed LED-Lighting as an Alternative Energy Savings Technique for Vertical Farms and Plant Factories
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Lighting System Characteristics
2.2. Continuous and Pulsed LED Light Effects in φPSII
LED Light Treatments (Pulsed and Continuous Light)
2.3. Continuous and Pulsed LED Light Effects in Energy Consumption
2.4. Mathematical Model: Continuous and Pulsed Light Modes
3. Results
3.1. Continuous and Pulsed LED Light Effects in Photochemical Efficiency of Photosystem II (φPSII)
3.2. Energy Consumption in CONTINUOUS and Pulsed LED Light
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Quality (Color) | Maximum PPFD (μmol) | Irradiated Surface (m2) |
---|---|---|
White | 150 | 0.19 (37 × 50 cm) |
Blue | 90 | 0.19 (37 × 50 cm) |
Green | 55 | 0.19 (37 × 50 cm) |
Red | 150 | 0.19 (37 × 50 cm) |
Total | 445 | 0.19 (37 × 50 cm) |
Recipes | Red | Green | Blue | White |
---|---|---|---|---|
95R5B | 95% | 0% | 5% | 0% |
83R17B | 83% | 0% | 17% | 0% |
60R40B | 60% | 0% | 40% | 0% |
57W43B | 0% | 0% | 43% | 57% |
67R11B22G | 67% | 22% | 11% | 0% |
67R33G | 67% | 33% | 0% | 0% |
100W | 0% | 0% | 0% | 100% |
50R50B | 50% | 0% | 50% | 0% |
70R30B | 70% | 0% | 30% | 0% |
30R70B | 30% | 0% | 70% | 0% |
Fc (Hz) | ton (s) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Duty Cycle (%) | ||||||
40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | |
1 × 102 | 0.004 | 0.005 | 0.006 | 0.007 | 0.008 | 0.009 |
5 × 102 | 0.0008 | 0.001 | 0.0012 | 0.0014 | 0.0016 | 0.0018 |
1 × 103 | 0.0004 | 0.0005 | 0.0006 | 0.0007 | 0.0008 | 0.0009 |
Initial Parameters | * Calculated Parameters | Measured Parameters | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Light Treatments (Recipes) | PPFDc (µmol m−2 s−1) | Photoperiod | Fc (Hz) | * T | * Np | * PPFDp (µmol m−2 s−1) | Energy Equivalence (mol m−2 d−1) | Energy Consumption ± 0.1 (W/h) | ||||||||||||
Duty Cycle (%) | Duty Cycle (%) | |||||||||||||||||||
40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | * DLIp | * DLIc | Continuous | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | ||||||
95R5B | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 3.24 | 3.24 | 23.8 | 21.3 | 21.6 | 22.2 | 22.7 | 23.0 | 23.7 |
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 22.1 | 23.1 | 23.1 | 23.4 | 23.7 | 23.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 23.0 | 23.1 | 23.4 | 23.5 | 23.5 | 23.7 | ||||||||||||
83R17B | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 24.0 | 21.4 | 21.7 | 22.1 | 22.7 | 23.1 | 23.8 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 22.8 | 23.1 | 23.2 | 23.5 | 23.8 | 24.0 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 23.0 | 23.3 | 23.3 | 23.7 | 23.9 | 24.0 | ||||||||||||
60R40B | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 24.8 | 21.7 | 22.3 | 22.7 | 23.1 | 23.5 | 24.3 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 22.3 | 23.3 | 23.8 | 23.9 | 24.1 | 24.5 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 23.7 | 23.7 | 24.1 | 24.2 | 24.4 | 24.5 | ||||||||||||
57W43B | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 26.0 | 23.1 | 23.7 | 24.2 | 24.6 | 25.0 | 25.6 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24× 107 | 23.2 | 23.2 | 23.7 | 25.4 | 25.5 | 26.0 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 25.4 | 26.5 | 25.6 | 25.8 | 25.8 | 26.0 | ||||||||||||
67R11B22G | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 25.4 | 21.9 | 22.4 | 22.9 | 23.4 | 23.9 | 24.7 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 23.4 | 23.7 | 24.0 | 24.3 | 24.5 | 24.7 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 23.7 | 23.9 | 24.1 | 24.3 | 24.5 | 24.8 | ||||||||||||
67R33G | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 24.0 | 21.3 | 21.6 | 22.1 | 22.4 | 22.8 | 23.5 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 22.6 | 22.8 | 23.0 | 23.1 | 23.4 | 23.7 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 23.1 | 23.2 | 23.3 | 23.3 | 23.6 | 24.0 | ||||||||||||
100W | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 25.5 | 23.4 | 23.8 | 24.2 | 24.4 | 24.5 | 25.1 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 22.8 | 23.0 | 23.3 | 23.6 | 25.2 | 25.5 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 25.7 | 25.6 | 25.7 | 25.4 | 25.4 | 25.5 | ||||||||||||
50R50B | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 24.8 | 22.0 | 22.3 | 22.6 | 23.1 | 23.6 | 24.4 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 22.1 | 22.8 | 23.7 | 24.0 | 24.1 | 24.4 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 23.5 | 23.8 | 23.9 | 24.3 | 24.5 | 24.6 | ||||||||||||
70R30B | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 24.4 | 21.6 | 22.0 | 22.4 | 22.8 | 23.2 | 23.9 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 23.2 | 23.3 | 23.4 | 23.7 | 23.8 | 24.1 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 23.5 | 23.6 | 23.6 | 23.8 | 24.0 | 24.2 | ||||||||||||
30R70B | 50 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 125 | 100 | 83 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 25.0 | 22.4 | 22.7 | 23.2 | 23.6 | 23.9 | 24.6 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 22.4 | 22.7 | 23.3 | 24.3 | 24.7 | 24.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 24.5 | 24.4 | 24.5 | 24.6 | 24.9 | 24.8 | ||||||||||||
95R5B | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 7.13 | 7.13 | 30.1 | 27.5 | 27.4 | 28.1 | 28.4 | 28.9 | 29.5 |
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 26.6 | 26.6 | 26.9 | 28.0 | 29.4 | 29.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 30.3 | 30.0 | 29.9 | 29.9 | 29.9 | 30.0 | ||||||||||||
83R17B | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 30.2 | 27.5 | 27.4 | 28.1 | 28.6 | 29.1 | 29.7 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 26.7 | 26.6 | 27.9 | 27.8 | 29.4 | 29.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 30.4 | 30.0 | 30.0 | 29.9 | 30.3 | 30.2 | ||||||||||||
60R40B | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48× 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 31.0 | 28.2 | 28.3 | 28.8 | 29.1 | 29.6 | 30.3 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 27.2 | 27.1 | 27.1 | 27.7 | 30.0 | 30.6 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 31.1 | 30.8 | 30.6 | 30.7 | 30.7 | 30.6 | ||||||||||||
57W43B | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 34.4 | 32.2 | 32.0 | 32.1 | 32.3 | 32.8 | 33.4 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 30.6 | 30.2 | 30.3 | 30.9 | 33.5 | 33.9 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 35.0 | 34.3 | 34.1 | 34.0 | 34.1 | 34.1 | ||||||||||||
67R11B22G | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 31.2 | 27.5 | 27.8 | 28.3 | 28.9 | 29.6 | 30.3 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 27.0 | 27.1 | 27.6 | 28.6 | 29.9 | 30.4 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 30.3 | 30.3 | 30.3 | 30.4 | 30.7 | 30.8 | ||||||||||||
67R33G | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 29.8 | 27.6 | 27.6 | 28.0 | 28.2 | 27.5 | 29.2 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 26.8 | 26.4 | 26.6 | 26.9 | 29.0 | 29.3 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 30.4 | 29.9 | 29.9 | 29.7 | 29.9 | 29.7 | ||||||||||||
100W | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 35.1 | 34.7 | 34.1 | 33.9 | 33.5 | 33.8 | 34.3 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 33.1 | 32.1 | 32.2 | 34.5 | 34.8 | 34.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 37.7 | 36.4 | 35.9 | 35.4 | 35.0 | 34.9 | ||||||||||||
50R50B | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 31.2 | 28.8 | 28.6 | 28.8 | 29.1 | 29.9 | 30.7 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 27.6 | 27.5 | 27.6 | 28.0 | 30.3 | 30.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 31.6 | 31.3 | 30.9 | 31.0 | 30.8 | 31.1 | ||||||||||||
70R30B | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 30.2 | 27.4 | 27.7 | 28.3 | 28.5 | 28.9 | 29.5 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 26.6 | 26.6 | 26.8 | 27.1 | 29.3 | 29.7 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 30.3 | 30.1 | 30.0 | 30.1 | 30.1 | 30.0 | ||||||||||||
30R70B | 110 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 275 | 220 | 183 | 157 | 138 | 122 | 32.2 | 31.0 | 30.6 | 30.6 | 30.5 | 30.8 | 31.5 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 29.8 | 29.1 | 29.2 | 29.5 | 31.4 | 31.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 33.8 | 33.1 | 32.6 | 32.2 | 32.2 | 32.3 | ||||||||||||
95R5B | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257.1 | 225 | 200 | 11.66 | 11.66 | 36.9 | 36.8 | 36.1 | 36.0 | 35.6 | 35.7 | 36.2 |
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 35.4 | 34.4 | 35.8 | 37.1 | 36.9 | 36.9 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 40.1 | 38.7 | 37.8 | 37.6 | 37.0 | 36.8 | ||||||||||||
83R17B | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 37.1 | 36.1 | 35.8 | 35.7 | 35.4 | 35.6 | 36.1 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 34.7 | 33.8 | 33.7 | 36.1 | 36.7 | 36.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 39.3 | 38.4 | 37.9 | 37.4 | 37.0 | 36.9 | ||||||||||||
60R40B | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 37.8 | 37.6 | 37.1 | 37.0 | 36.6 | 36.8 | 37.2 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 36.1 | 35.2 | 35.2 | 38.0 | 38.1 | 38.1 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 41.1 | 39.5 | 38.8 | 38.6 | 38.3 | 38.0 | ||||||||||||
57W43B | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 43.5 | 45.5 | 44.1 | 43.3 | 43.2 | 43.4 | 43.5 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 43.7 | 42.1 | 45.2 | 44.8 | 44.4 | 43.8 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 48.6 | 46.9 | 45.7 | 45.1 | 44.3 | 44.2 | ||||||||||||
67R11B22G | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 37.3 | 36.0 | 35.7 | 35.9 | 35.9 | 36.0 | 36.7 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 34.9 | 34.0 | 34.0 | 36.5 | 37.1 | 37.4 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 39.5 | 38.4 | 37.8 | 37.6 | 37.4 | 37.3 | ||||||||||||
67R33G | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 36.9 | 37.7 | 36.8 | 36.4 | 35.8 | 35.9 | 36.5 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 36.4 | 35.2 | 34.7 | 37.3 | 37.2 | 37.2 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 41.4 | 39.5 | 38.4 | 37.8 | 37.5 | 37.1 | ||||||||||||
100W | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 46.7 | 53.2 | 50.2 | 48.1 | 47.0 | 47.1 | 47.0 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 52.4 | 48.6 | 50.6 | 49.2 | 48.1 | 47.3 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 56.6 | 51.8 | 49.7 | 49.3 | 48.3 | 47.5 | ||||||||||||
50R50B | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 38.4 | 39.6 | 38.4 | 38.2 | 37.8 | 37.8 | 38.0 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 38.3 | 36.8 | 36.5 | 39.2 | 39.0 | 38.9 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 43.6 | 41.4 | 40.2 | 39.7 | 39.5 | 38.9 | ||||||||||||
70R30B | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 37.1 | 36.3 | 35.8 | 35.7 | 35.5 | 35.8 | 36.4 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 34.7 | 34.0 | 33.9 | 36.5 | 36.9 | 37.1 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 39.4 | 38.3 | 37.8 | 37.5 | 37.1 | 37.0 | ||||||||||||
30R70B | 180 | 18/6 | 100 | 0.01 | 6.48 × 106 | 450 | 360 | 300 | 257 | 225 | 200 | 40.6 | 46.5 | 43.6 | 41.8 | 41.2 | 40.9 | 40.7 | ||
500 | 0.002 | 3.24 × 107 | 45.4 | 41.9 | 43.3 | 42.8 | 42.1 | 41.4 | ||||||||||||
1000 | 0.001 | 6.48 × 107 | 50.3 | 47.0 | 44.6 | 43.1 | 42.3 | 41.7 |
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Olvera-Gonzalez, E.; Escalante-Garcia, N.; Myers, D.; Ampim, P.; Obeng, E.; Alaniz-Lumbreras, D.; Castaño, V. Pulsed LED-Lighting as an Alternative Energy Savings Technique for Vertical Farms and Plant Factories. Energies 2021, 14, 1603. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061603
Olvera-Gonzalez E, Escalante-Garcia N, Myers D, Ampim P, Obeng E, Alaniz-Lumbreras D, Castaño V. Pulsed LED-Lighting as an Alternative Energy Savings Technique for Vertical Farms and Plant Factories. Energies. 2021; 14(6):1603. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061603
Chicago/Turabian StyleOlvera-Gonzalez, Ernesto, Nivia Escalante-Garcia, Deland Myers, Peter Ampim, Eric Obeng, Daniel Alaniz-Lumbreras, and Victor Castaño. 2021. "Pulsed LED-Lighting as an Alternative Energy Savings Technique for Vertical Farms and Plant Factories" Energies 14, no. 6: 1603. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061603