Comprehensive Review on Fault Ride-Through Requirements of Renewable Hybrid Microgrids
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. DFIG Based WT System
2.1. Aerodynamic Model of Wind Turbines
2.2. Doubly Fed Induction Generator
2.3. Conversion System of DFIG
2.4. Classification of FRT Methods for DFIG-WT
2.4.1. Protection Devices
2.4.2. Reactive Power Injection Devices
2.4.3. Energy Storage Devices
2.4.4. Traditional Control Techniques
2.4.5. Advanced Control Techniques
2.5. Hybrid Advanced Control Techniques
3. Modelling of PV System
3.1. Conversion System of PV System
3.2. Classification of FRT Methods for PV Power System
4. Classification of FRT Methods for Hybrid PV-WT (PV-WT HRS)
5. Summary and Discussions
6. Conclusions and Future Prospective
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
Mechanical power in (W) | |
Air density (kg/m3) | |
R | Radius of the rotor blade (m) |
Wind speed (m/s) | |
Angular rotor speed, synchronous grid speed. | |
Power coefficient | |
β (deg) | Blade pitch angle |
Angular position | |
Maximum rotor voltage during fault | |
Fault line voltage, PCC voltage | |
Angle between the board and the solar rays | |
Tilt angle from the horizontal surface | |
Reference rated power of PV unit | |
Reference rated sunlight intensity. | |
Represents sunlight intensity at moment | |
Power temperature coefficient | |
Number of PV panels | |
Conversion efficiency | |
PV array power under standard test conditions (STC) | |
Grid reactive power | |
Reference grid reactive power | |
Rotor current in d axis | |
Rotor current in q axis | |
Reference rotor current in q axis | |
Reference voltage in q axis | |
Reference voltage in d axis | |
Reference reactive power | |
solar radiation under STC | |
STC temperature (298 K) | |
MAAC | Multiagent asynchronously compensated |
Tip speed ratio. | |
Induced emf constant | |
Armature current | |
Field current | |
j | Inertia |
Transmission gear ratio | |
Observer constant | |
B | Turbine frictional constant |
Active power of DVR consumed active power from a load. | |
Instantaneous PV generator efficiency | |
Area of PV system modules in () | |
Hourly total solar radiance in () | |
PV generator reference efficiency | |
the efficiency of power tracking equipment | |
PV cell temperature in () | |
PV cell reference temperature in () | |
Temperature coefficient of efficiency | |
Normal operating cell temperature | |
Ambient temperature | |
Dc link voltage | |
Reference dc link voltage | |
Resonant frequency | |
Reference resonant frequency | |
Reference rotor current in d axis | |
Three phase rotor current | |
Three phase rotor current | |
reactive power | |
the direct radiation | |
C, , x | Diffuse portion constant, the reflection index and the zenith angle |
ADMM | Alternating direction method of multipliers |
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Ref | Functions | Expression of | Conclusions |
---|---|---|---|
[64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71] | Exponential models depend on variations in the relationship between and . The output power is controlled through the action of the torque and turbine speed which adjust the rotation of the blades of the turbine | This model has eight analyzed models of with different coefficients that define the type of turbine. | This model gives a reliable result with Practical values of , where his equations describe the behavior of the model effectively. Aguayo et al. model gives a maximum power coefficient which means maximum power can be extracted from the wind. at . |
[72,73,74,75,76] | Sinusoidal models depend on variations in the relationship between- and . The output power is controlled through the action of the torque and , and β | This model is satisfied by five analysed models which differ in coefficients. | This model handles with impractical . The Bouallegue et al. model gives at . In these models, period and amplitude are varied from each other. |
[77,78] | Polynomial models depend on specific speed (), where the angle of attack of the blade WT is constant. This model is used in turbines with lower power. | , Where the maximum order is n = 7. Four models are found which are third-order, fourth-order, fifth-order, and seventh-order. | The third-order model gives at which is very simple and easy to carry out. Fourth-order gives out of limits of Betz law so it is un possible to use it. |
[79] | Alternative function | This model is subject to limited magnitude for values of which is out of experimental limits. | |
[80] | Continuous state observer is used to estimating in WT which is connected to separately excited dc generator | This observer helps in controlling MPPT design. It is used with WECS which deals with different generators. | |
[81] | The new electricity system cascade analysis | a, G, : constant of regression process. | |
[82] | This model depends on adopting piecewise function | represents WT rated power, represents rated wind speed of WT; cut-in wind speed of WT, cut-out wind speed of WT. | |
[83] | Multi-objective self-adaptive differential evolution algorithm | = 2.5 m/s, = 13 m/s, and = 25 m/s. | |
[84] | The output power of WT is a polynomial function which is a function of wind velocity. | In this model, outpower is extracted when wind speed is above 3.5 m/s (cut-in speed) until a rated wind speed of 9.5 m/s is reached. For wind speed exceeding 25 m/s, the turbine has to be stalled to prevent structural damage. | |
[85] | The electrical power extracted from WT is limited by the range of operation between the cut-in and cut-out wind speed | , , and are regression coefficients. | |
[86] | Multiple polynomial regression with a maximum relative error of about 14% | Variable speed, constant speed, pitch-controlled WTs, and blade number determine this model’s form. This model needs fewer parameters only and . | |
[87] | is the Hellman coefficient | = 0.42, , = 0.25, = 10 m and = 40 m. |
Ref | Controlling (RSC) | Controlling (GSC) | Conclusions |
---|---|---|---|
[7,53,98,99] | Voltage-oriented vector control (VOC) controls the RSC of DFIG, where the stator voltage is aligned to the d-axis of the rotating frame for the decoupling control of the active and the reactive power. | GSC controls the dc-link voltage where the d-axis of the rotating reference frame is aligned with the positive sequence of grid voltage. | VOC proposes a good steady-state operation for DFIG-WT. VOC is the most commonly used control technique in modern DFIG-WT |
[24,27,54,55,56] | Stator flux-oriented vector control (FOC) controls RSC which is achieved through rotor speed and . It controls the output of DFIG by controlling the q component of RSC | GSC control-dc-link voltage where as DFIG converter handles with 25–30% of its rating. | FOC reduces the oscilation damping when the excitation current is increased. |
[16] | Direct torque control (DTC) technique controls the RSC of DFIG to control reactive power and generator speed by controlling electromagnetic torque | GSC controls dc-link voltage where . | DTC regulates rotor currents through PI controllers. Its performance has a fast response, but it has a constant switching frequency which produces ripples in current and reduces the robustness of the mechanical gearbox. |
Ref | Device | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
[46,117] | Crowbar | Prevents RSC from overcurrent by making short circuits on rotor winding. It is very simple and effective in symmetrical faults | The DFIG consumes a greater amount of reactive power, voltage recovery is inhibited and it behaves like a squirrel cage induction generator. The low value of resistance causes increasing electromagnetic torque oscillation which causes more stress on the drive train |
[46,48] | DC chopper resistance | Maintains dc voltage at a constant value and tends to protect IGBT from overvoltage | It does not affect rotor current damping. This method dissipates the power in the dc-link |
[46] | Modified dc chopper resistance | Three semiconductor switches are used to insert chopper resistance in series or parallel connection with the dc-link. It is used to limit overcurrent on rotor side and increase voltage in the dc-link according to its threshold values | High cost |
[49,118,119] | DBR | Effective protection method that restores voltage at the load side. The RSC continues to operate, unlike the crowbar circuit | Avoids dc-ink overvoltage but it needs a control technique to overcome frequent faults. Difficult to synchronize the stator voltage. It is very sensitive to switching delays. It is not limit fault current effectively |
[50,120] | SFCL | In DFIG, SFCL connects in series with the rotor winding or stator winding. It is used in transmission lines. It has a fast response. It limits voltage drop efficiency. It does not need adding impedance in normal operation | Needs a special complex cooling system for the superconductors |
[99] | Switch type FCL | It connects to the dc side of RSC to limit the overcurrent of RSC. It solves the problems of crowbar protection as it eliminates the fault consequences even for zero grid voltage. It does not use superconducting inductance, so it is less cost | Affected by temperature and current density, and it needs compensation devices |
[51,115,121] | BCFCL | Combines protection tasks for DFIG and provides reactive power compensation. It has low cost, low losses, and low voltage drop in limiting fault current | High cost |
Ref | Device | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
[53] | SVC | Simple structure and good source for reactive power compensation. Its bus voltage is controlled and TSC reduces the power losses. | Controlling reactive power depends on voltage level. Installation and maintenance are very high in cost. Due to the fast response of SVC, the system has unstable voltage oscillations |
STASTOM | After the voltage is recovered, STACTOM provides DFIG with more deaccelerated torque which increases the stability of the grid. It provides higher currents at low voltage compared with SVC. | Lower response time than SVC. It does not protect RSC from overcurrent. High mechanical stress. | |
[54] | DVR | It restores the voltage when a fault occurs by using ESD. Other protective devices are not needed during operation. It is an effective solution when used with ESD. | Needs a high power rating from the power converter. |
[55] | UPQC | Controls the active and reactive power. Suitable solution for compensating reactive power. Fast response. | Requires a high rating of the DC-link capacitor. |
Ref | Device | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
[58] | Flywheel | Efficiency is 85–95%, less maintained, high response time, and not affected by repeating charge and discharge. | High cost and a short life span. |
[56] | Battery | Efficiency 75–95%, free maintains cost, and depth of charge 80%. It is the most effective way to store electricity by controlling its state of charge. | Short life cycle if the battery is discharged deeply. It has a slow time response so it cannot provide frequency support. |
[97,114,115] | SMES | Cyclic efficiency 90–95%, large power density, response time is very short, and unlimited charging and discharging cycle. | It has a high capital cost. To ensure efficient application of SMES, suitable power system locations must be selected carefully in the power system. |
[57] | Supercapacitor | Efficiency 85–95%, an important source of reactive power, long lifetime not affected by charging and discharging rate, and high power density. | Less energy density. |
[59] | CAES | Efficiency 80–90%, and higher power density. | High capital cost. |
Ref | Control Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
[158,159,160,161,162,163,164] | Blade pitch angle control | It protects WTs from damage during grid fault through the PI controller. This controller is a traditional controller which is improved by fuzzy control technique | It depends on generator speed not depends on generator power. It takes a longer time (13 s) to return the system to steady-state condition. |
[165,166] | Hysteresis current vector controller | Simple technique to control active and reactive power. It helps in limiting peak current. It is not sensitive to the system parameters. | It may not provide DFIG with suitable compensation. Its voltage quality is not favorable. It causes large oscillations in the output current. |
[37] | Feedforward control technique | Its load voltage is feedback to the voltage controller. Therefore, it is a simple technique and the stability of the power system is increased. | Its response is slow. It has a steady-state error. It is not robust to external disturbance |
[102] | Vector control | High performance for DFIG in steady-state operation | It is not an effective control technique when severe voltage sages have occurred as its control technique is very sensitive to the parameter values of DFIG. |
Ref | Control Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
[175] | Sliding mode operation | Fast response and provide robustness against parameter uncertainties to improve the transient performance of DFIG | It isn’t use for back-to-back converters and is used for RSC only as it is more complex. High-frequency switching |
[158] | Fuzzy logic, genetic algorithm | Good performance and extend rapid-transient responses in dc-link voltage | They cannot track the maximum power point. They cannot face the impact at the different wind speeds |
[44] | LQR | High accuracy for the system parameters, rapid convergence, and fast response. | It is more complex and has a steady-state error |
[169,176] | Deadbeat controller | Computes the rotor voltage and applies it during voltage sage. This controller is designed by using a stator field controller | Not robust and it is used for a short sampling time |
[177,178,179,180] | Model predictive control | It predicts the future behaviour of the controlled variables, which deals with multi-input multi-output problems. It gives high performance and fast response as it does not use a cascade control. It is a simple method as GSC is replaced by a dc power source for simplicity | Sensitive to parameter problems and its performance depends on accurate information about DFIG, which may not be available in a practical system. Needs some optimization, which reduces the computational efficiency |
[181] | Nonlinear adaptive backstepping control | Calculate the parameters of any nonlinear system TrackS the rotor speed to optimise the extracted output power to control stator reactive power | Needs an additional observer to measure flux, which can’t be measured. |
FRT Capability Methods | Limiting Stator Current | Decrease Rotor Current | Reduce Voltage Drop | Maintain Dc-Link Voltage | Reactive Power Support | Reduce Oscillations of Active Power | Decrease Oscillation Voltage | Reducing Torque Fluctuations | Effective for Symmetrical Fault | Effective for Asymmetrical Fault |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crowbar [46,117] | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ✓ | ꭗ |
DC link chopper method [48] | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ |
Modified dc chopper resistance [46] | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ |
DBR [118,119] | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ |
SFCL [50,120] | ✓ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | |
Switch type FCL [99] | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ |
BCFCL [51,115] | ✓ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ |
SVC [53] | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ |
STASTOM [53] | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ |
DVR [54] | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ |
UPQC [55] | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ |
ESDs [58] | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ |
Crowbar with SDBR [108] | ꭗ | ✓ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Crowbar assembled with series R-L [47] | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ✓ |
Crowbar assembled with dc-link chopper [47] | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ꭗ | ✓ | ✓ |
Ref | PV Power System Equations | Conclusion |
---|---|---|
[182] | Where is the PV system efficiency, Id is the direct normal irradiance, θ is the angle between the tilted surface and the solar rays, C is the diffuse portion coefficient, ρ is the reflection index and χ is the zenith angle. : instanteneous solar power generation | Do not take into consideration the influence of temperature on PV power generation. |
[183] | where is 1 in this model, is taken 25 °C, ranges from 0.004 to 0.006 per °C for silicon cells and is set to 0.0048 in this model. is defined as 45 °C. is 25 °C | |
[184] | = 12%, = 0.33%, = 25 °C, and = 45 °C. | |
[83] | is 1 kW/m2; and is a constant = −3.7 × 10−3 (1/°C) | |
[185] | R: solar radiation factor, : rated power of PV array, : Specified radiation point, and Standard test conditions for radiation. = 150 W/m2, = 1000 W/m2 and = 260 W | |
[186] | : derating factor. | |
[84] | Output power of PV system is computed by polynomial function at any given solar irradiation )). | |
[87] | The out power of PV system is still around maximum power | |
[187] | ||
[188] | ||
[82] | In this model, the extracted power of PV is depended on sunlight intensity and temperature. |
Ref | Current Control Techniques | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
[189,191,192] | Proportional integral (PI) implemented in dq frame | Good filtering. Easy hardware implementation. Easy current control technique. Good dynamic response. | Not provide harmonics compensation Not provide Steady-state error removal |
Proportional-resonant (PR) implemented in frame | High gain in resonance frequency. High dynamic response. Provide good removal in steady-state error Provide good harmonic compensation. | Hardware complexity | |
Repetitive current (RC) implemented in frame | Good removal in steady-state error. High gain in resonance frequency Easy reference current tracking High order harmonics compensator | Slow dynamic response Low stability | |
Dead-beat (DB) | Provide current regulation. High sensitivity. Robustness. High dynamic and fast response. | Implementation in high frequency DSP. High delay Only applicable to active filters. | |
Hysteresis control | Good stability, High dynamic, provides good transient response Individual load parameters Robustness | Varying modulation frequency, High complexity controller, resonance is occurred in the grid voltage | |
[189,191] | Predictive control | Minimize forecast error Good precision control Low harmonic & noise Good dynamic response | Poor performance under variable parameters Hardware complexity High sampling rate |
[189] | Sliding mode control | Simple controller, Robustness Good stability, High speed controller | Chattering Discontinuous control function |
Feedback linearization | Good stability, High accuracy Good dynamic response | Complex controller High computational process | |
Back stepping control | Robustness, High stability Applied Easy control, High efficiency | Gains can be adjusted | |
Fuzzy logic control | Global controller, High efficiency, Easy integration with conventional controllers, Noisy-friendly controller Low overshoot & oscillation, Fast convergence, and its Parameter not sensitive | Complex controller It depends on fuzzy rules | |
Genetic algorithm | Provide good optimization Suitable for complex problems | High computational time |
Ref | Technique | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
[193] | FCL | High ability to limit increasing AC current Increase the grid stability The complexity is medium | Excessive AC current can be highly restricted Combined with other methods to enhance the FRT capability of PV system |
[194] | SDBR | Low maintenance and high reliability Comparatively fewer switches than FACTS Complexity is medium | Weak in reactive power control Can’t with stand voltage fluctuations The cost is medium |
[195] | BES | Simplest protection device Protect the inverter from increasing voltage Long cycle life and -Low cost | It mixed with other techniques to enhance the FRT capability of PV system |
[53] | SVC | Simple structure Bus voltage is controlled and TSC reduces the power losses. | Controlling reactive power Installation and maintenance costs are very high It has unstable voltage oscillations |
[196] | STATCOM | Needs many switches has not ability to provide active power Control efficiently the reactive power Fast response during disturbances Decrease the negative sequence of the voltage Complexity is high | Reduce the negative voltage sequence. Comparatively less disturbances than SVC High cost |
[197] | SSSC | Less complex and low cost Comparatively better device from cost and performance than TCSC | |
[198] | DVR | Inject reactive power provide voltage stability in weak system Complexity is high | Reactive control relies on the voltage As a result of the fast response, voltage oscillations are unstable—High cost |
[199] | BESS | Capable of storing excess energy Reduces the amplitude of AC current Medium-complexity Approximately 0.2 s are required, and the system is ensured to be safe | Short life span fluctuation in DC parameters Short life cycle Need uniform maintenance High cost |
[200] | SCESS | Limit overvoltage Provide injection reactive current Long cycle life and medium-complexity Faster and smooth response | The specific energy is relatively low Short term voltage stability and high cost |
[201] | BFCL | Response is robust and No spikes voltage drop is low in PV side and grid side During and after a fault, it reduces stress on semiconductor devices | High cost |
[201] | STFCL | Response is robust during the fault initiation and clearing time | Needs a special complex cooling system for the superconductors |
[202] | MIC | Efficient to meets the FRT requirements No additional hardware—Less cost Complexity is low and most efficient method | Some power is lost during grid fault |
[203] | PSO | Flexibility and simplicity High efficiency in MPPT Fast response during fault The complexity is medium | Some overshooting and oscillation is occurred Complex dynamic systems Operate in more instinctive way Low cost |
[204] | FLC | Active and reactive current components are controlled Limits over-voltage and over-current during faults. Complexity is medium and low cost. | Complex dynamic systems Operate in more instinctive way |
[201,204] | DCL | Does not need extra protective inverter and other devices | DC-link voltage and reactive current injection problems are not addressed |
[205] | FLS | Complexity is low and low cost Maintains fault current limits of the inverter Enhances FRT capability without requiring external devices | DC-link voltage and reactive current injection problems are not addressed |
[206] | ADL | Decreases increasing voltage during disturbance Controls the positive and negative sequence currents during fault conditions Complexity is low and the cost is medium | DC-link voltage fluctuation is occurred Redundant AC-current is addressed |
Ref | Description | Control Method | Conclusions |
---|---|---|---|
[207] | The PMSG and PV arrays are connected to the same DC-link capacitor through the turbine-side converter and PV side converter respectively. The DC-Link is associated with grid through GSC and a step-up transformer. | Adaptive direct output control | Regulate the GSC output current through saving the power imbalance between the DC and AC terminals. Smoothing the net generated power of the HRES. |
[208] | Switched modulated power filter compensator (MPFC) is one D-FACTS devices | Effective solution for compensating reactive power and harmonic reduction. The MPFC relies on a combination of shunt capacitor bank along with tuned arm filter. MPFC’s shunt admittance can be adjusted using two complementary switching pulses, controlled by a dynamic multi-loop error-driven PID | Appropriate solution to overcome the shortcomings of the inverter and provide better performance especially with induction motor (IM) loads Maintains the voltage total harmonic distortion (THD) within the acceptable limits Additional costs will be added Withstand longer fault durations. Resolves some poor power quality issues and gives flexibility in operation |
[49] | Hybrid PV/WT using DVR | Adding device | Effective techniques to restore the voltage during disturbance |
[209,210] | PV/WT based on SC energy-storage device | Adding device | Decreases power fluctuations under variations in wind speed and PV irradiance SC provides a fast response for power regulation |
[123] | Hybrid PV/wind using STATCOM | Adding device | After the voltage is recovered, it provides more deaccelerated torque, which increases the grid stability |
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Moheb, A.M.; El-Hay, E.A.; El-Fergany, A.A. Comprehensive Review on Fault Ride-Through Requirements of Renewable Hybrid Microgrids. Energies 2022, 15, 6785. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186785
Moheb AM, El-Hay EA, El-Fergany AA. Comprehensive Review on Fault Ride-Through Requirements of Renewable Hybrid Microgrids. Energies. 2022; 15(18):6785. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186785
Chicago/Turabian StyleMoheb, Aya M., Enas A. El-Hay, and Attia A. El-Fergany. 2022. "Comprehensive Review on Fault Ride-Through Requirements of Renewable Hybrid Microgrids" Energies 15, no. 18: 6785. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186785