1. Introduction
Due to the rapid development of power electronic technology, the energy storage systems (ESS) dependent on applying renewable energy sources (RESs) emerged as the best and most cutting-edge way to electrify remote locations while addressing the dangers associated with the depletion of fossil fuels and pertinent environmental concerns [
1]. Wind energy generation increased rapidly during the last few decades. Wind energy utilization climbed from 0.2% to 4.8% of total power output between 2000 and 2018, and is anticipated to reach more than 12% by 2040 [
2]. The wind industry’s advancements in technology contributed to this quick expansion. Additionally, the solar future research explored the contribution of solar energy to the development of a carbon-free power grid. The solar futures study investigates the contribution of solar energy to the development of a carbon-free electric grid [
3].
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and the Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) of the U.S. Department of Energy conducted research and found that solar energy could supply up to 40% of the country’s power by 2035 and 45% by 2050 [
3]. The microgrid applications in logistics, Singapore islands, and buildings are represented in [
4,
5,
6]. More than 85% of all cargo traffic worldwide is moved by sea, which gives marine logistics a vital role as global trade expands. Between 2000 and 2015, the energy demand for international shipping, including seaports, expanded on average by 1.6% per year [
4]. There are several ways to integrate RES and storage systems, including direct integration, and employing virtual power plants or microgrids [
5]. Distributed energy storage raises demand elasticity, which improves grid balancing services via smart meters. Specifically, energy storage increases the income stream from distributed generation by enhancing energy supply methods [
6]. However, regulating supply and demand in the power network is becoming increasingly difficult due to the growing amount of solar and wind-based electricity. Additionally, the changing wind speeds and unpredictable future weather patterns make relying on the offshore wind a problematic venture. These factors make it difficult to make forward energy supply agreements. Further research is needed to determine the optimal operation and reconfiguring of HMG systems using RESs without batteries due to the intermittency of solar irradiance and wind speed. Following that, the hydrogen storage system (HSS) presents itself as a green and cutting-edge method [
7].
Since the earliest internal combustion engines were powered by hydrogen energy and manufactured over 200 years ago, these two became crucial components of the current stationery and automobile industries [
8]. When energy is created from naturally occurring substances, hydrogen is the perfect component for storing or delivering it [
9]. No fuel has more energy per mass than hydrogen. However, due to its low density at room temperature, it has a low volumetric energy content. As a result, various storage and production techniques can be taken into account to achieve greater target energy densities [
10]. In fuel cell (FC), hydrogen can also be utilized to generate electricity without emitting any pollutants, especially if it is created using renewable energy. Utilizing hydrogen has significant advantages. It can be utilized in industry, public transportation, and indoor heating [
11]. Due to system integration and improved use of renewable energy sources, hydrogen energy storage systems provide a chance to improve the flexibility and resilience of sustainable energy systems while also possibly lowering total energy prices. Climate change, energy security, and the negative effects of bad air quality on health are all motivating factors for a more sustainable energy future [
12].
Hydrogen storage technologies (HSTs) are major obstacles to the growth of the hydrogen economy. More sophisticated storage techniques based on carbon-based polymers and metal-organic frameworks hydrides are being explored as possible alternatives [
13]. In order to provide a better energy density, improved HSTs must be developed [
14]. These systems cover both material- and physically based storage. First, hydrogen could be kept in liquid or gas form. In order to store hydrogen as a vapor, adequate high-pressure tanks (between 350 and 700 bars) are often needed [
15]. Although hydrogen has such a critical temperature of −252.8 °C, freezing temperatures are needed to keep it in a liquid [
16]. Second, hydrogen may be held within solids, such as in metal hydride compounds on the edges of solids through adsorption. Liquid hydrogen has an energy density per volume of roughly 8 MJL-1, which is greater than hydrogen storage based on high-pressure tanks. However, gasoline and kerosene have energy densities per volume of 32 MJL-1 and 35 MJL-1, respectively.
The integrated power system of HMG will search for prospective advantages of HSS as well as the growth in wind and solar farms’ technological and economic efficiency [
17]. In a future civilization that is carbon neutral, such facilities that concurrently run HSS, wind, and solar power production are expected to play a key role [
18]. Profitability can be increased by jointly running an HSS and participating in the electricity market while making the greatest use of the circumstances of the electricity market and hydrogen gas-based use cases. As a consequence, the behavior of the Hydrogen based HMG that arises is complicated, and in order to revolutionize the global energy sector. The National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) supports the need for such an examination in Andrapradesh, India [
19].
A schematic illustration of hydrogen applications taking into account nuclear and RES is shown in
Figure 1. Distributed energy (DG) is quickly integrated into the grid as an HMG, as a result of breakthroughs in power electronic devices and the assistance of advancements on both the power source and load side. Additionally, BAC is required for HMGs to guarantee voltage stability and power equilibration between the DC and AC grids [
20]. The coordinated control scheme allows for efficient power transfer across AC and DC connections, as well as reliable system performance under a variety of load and generating situations. In [
21], an assessment and mitigation solutions for system-level dynamic interaction with control power converters in HMG are examined. To increase system stability, an efficient control strategy to modify the DC side admittance is performed. Hydrogen is a viable choice for energy storage, since it can be used for a variety of purposes, including power generation and the management of renewable hydrogen production [
22].
Incorporating renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaic (PV), wind, diesel production, or a mix of these sources, HMGs are pushed to address a variety of electrical and energy-related concerns. Clean energy, improved grid stability, and decreased congestion are just a few advantages of using microgrids in the production of electric power. Despite these benefits, cost issues prevent the widespread adoption of microgrids. In order to deal with these financial issues, it is required to investigate the best microgrid configurations based on the number, quality, and accessibility of RES utilized to establish the microgrid as well as the best layout of microgrid elements.
The expense of initial management and operating energy is significantly impacted by the development of HSS as a possible kind of ESSs. It is often added to HMG as energy buffer area to stabilize power fluctuation and achieve autonomous operation [
23]. If all distributed sources, together with the grid-connected operating mode’s peak load, cannot be met, inadequate electricity is supplied by the utility grid. If not, extra electricity is added to the electrical system [
24]. Due to power assistance, the effect of ESS on the balance of power is not highlighted in this operating condition. Considerations such as operation costs, economy, serviceability, and power response time should be made while choosing an appropriate ESS. As an illustration, battery ESS has high efficiency but high power consumption. Large-scale applications of pumped hydro systems are possible, but utility grid deployment locations have some unique needs. Because it transforms chemical energy into electrical energy, an HSS is classified as a chemical storage system. Contrast to battery ESS, this power transmission method uses a fuel cell, an electrolyzer, and a hydrogen storage tank, and is therefore applicable to both power and energy.
The operating strategy and power management plan are crucial for delivering reliable operation in both grid-connected and standalone operating modes. The phrases “energy management” and “power management” have various meanings in microgrids when controlling activities and time scales. The ultimate aim of long-term energy management methods would be to optimally adapt the total generating capacity to the demand [
25,
26].
The actions of operators are influenced by several variables. First, the viability and economics of green hydrogen distribution routes have a significant influence, directly altering the incentives of operators [
27]. It is possible that the current natural gas infrastructure will be upgraded, gaseous hydrogen will be delivered in tube trailers, or hydrogen will be transported by ships. Second, the future hydrogen market’s structure will be a key factor in the changes. For instance, the cost of hydrogen could well be controlled at the global, state, or even municipal levels. Hydrogen offtake contracts will be essential in determining the operator’s actions in such markets [
28]. Third, power purchase agreements (PPAs) are used to operate offshore wind farms, owing to the combination of high initial costs and unpredictability in future payoffs [
29]. According to a PPA, the seller must provide the contractual buyer with predetermined volumes of renewable power at predetermined times and specified costs. The operator’s actions are directly impacted by the PPA’s requirements for price, size, and timeliness.
Future markets for HSS systems, which provide electrical grid support services in addition to injecting hydrogen or green gas into gas pipelines, will be influenced by a number of potentially transformative factors, such as decarbonization, increased reliability and security, and higher levels of systems integration [
30]. By introducing a previously unrecognized level of consumer choice, HSS systems give governments the chance to vary the ways in which consumers engage in green energy purchasing. Where green energy premiums are offered to providers of renewable electricity, HSS systems could be associated with greater to obtain green premiums for renewable gas.
The main objective of this paper is to review various hydrogen production methods, hydrogen energy storage technologies, energy management, and renewable energy integration of HMG. Initially, modeling and integrating RES, such as solar, wind, and hydrogen energy, are examined, while taking into account distributing power among the resources. Then, a distinct control strategy for the integrating converter to achieve a smooth integration of the AC bus is examined. Finally, a combined linear and NL load is taken into consideration to demonstrate the efficacy of the HMG. Additionally, the developed control strategy is used to incorporate the HMG into the proposed system while reducing the reactive power under linear and NL loads.
The structure of this paper is represented as follows:
Section 2 discusses the related literature.
Section 3 illustrates a general review of hydrogen generation techniques. Hydrogen storage systems are extensively covered in
Section 4.
Section 5 discusses the hydrogen-based HMG control strategy and energy management system. In
Section 6, a case study of hydrogen-based HMG is examined using the control strategy. The future aspects of hydrogen energy are discussed in
Section 7.
Section 8 and
Section 9 examine the discussions and the paper’s conclusion, respectively.
2. Literature Work
The fundamental issue of combining hydrogen energy storage devices with solar and wind power generation is the subject of a very small number of studies. In this paper, the operational issues with hydrogen energy systems are described. The linkages between research on hydrogen system operation and the related electrical markets, agreements, renewable energy resources, storage, energy management in HMG, and the possibilities of hydrogen energy globally can be evaluated.
Yue et al. [
31] provided a summary of current advancements in hydrogen technologies and their utilization in power systems for the creation, storage, and re-electrification of hydrogen. Dawood et al. [
32] evaluated these pathways as well in order to evaluate how different pathways for producing hydrogen interacted with one other and with other phases of the hydrogen square. Najjar [
33] assessed the safety of hydrogen during its production, transfer, and use, but did not examine the many drawbacks of the various methods used to produce hydrogen. Their analysis indicates that safety concerns about the usage of hydrogen are mostly highlighted in reference to its ignition and burning characteristics, including its lower ionization energy, quick diffusion, relatively high flame velocities, and wide combustibility range explosions. Parra et al. [
34] provided the cost-based evaluation of the evolution of hydrogen generation, but lacked a thorough analysis of the numerous trends in the advancement of the various technologies. Recently, Mengdi and Wang [
35] provided a summary of the technologies used to produce hydrogen, which covers both sustainable and non-renewable resources. Additionally, they contrasted the environmental effect assessments for each technology’s life cycle. Lane et al. [
36] discussed the prediction for renewable hydrogen technologies production shareholdings. This work indicates that in the early markets, biomass gasifiers are the dominant technology.
The chemical energy of a fuel and oxidizer agent is turned into electrical energy through electrochemical reaction FCs, which are electromechanical devices. The reagents are continually supplied, unlike batteries. Transportation, portable, and stationary industries can all benefit from the utilization of FCs [
37]. The main technical obstacles of this technology are still the price, performance, and endurance. Platinum is the most expensive component in terms of the potential cost. One of the key obstacles to overcoming the technical hurdles and improving FC’s effectiveness, durability, and price is the development of materials that reduce the degradation mechanisms in FCs [
38]. Furthermore, the cost of hydrogen must be equivalent to that of current fuels and technology.
Edathil et al. [
39] looked at the best fuel alternatives while analyzing the practicality of HMG systems. An ant colony algorithm was used in the study to design multi-objective economic operations for three separate Egyptian island communities. Abo-Elyousr et al. [
40] used several optimization strategies to find the hybrid PV/wind/diesel microgrid system’s ideal size while taking the battery banks into account as energy storage systems. The techno-economic viability of preserving energy in biomass-fired industrial boilers was examined by Diab et al. [
41]. The cycle tempo program was used to determine how ecofriendly rice husk is as a fuel. Arévalo et al. [
42], used HOMER software to examine the effects of five various storage technologies incorporated into hydrokinetics, a diesel generator, PV, and hybrid RES.
Mahani et al. [
43] presented the HSS-based integrated transport network. The authors established HSS’s viability and its potential in Germany. Using HOMER software, Cai et al. [
44] studied the techno-economic analysis of fuel cells for a vehicle system, hydrogen generation, and wind energy limitation. The excess wind power restriction was, however, best stored by the hydrogen fuel cell generator. El-Taweel et al. [
45] planned privately owned hydrogen storage facilities and topologies. The PV battery hydrogen systems had an identity of higher than 54%, according to Coppitters et al. [
46], who looked into the optimal design and stochastic performance of an on-grid PV system. These findings indicate that the generated system was less vulnerable to real-world uncertainties.
A proposed interface converter-based adaptive virtual inertia control approach for HMG is discussed by Luo et al. [
47]. By reducing the rate of variation in AC frequency and DC voltage and increasing the variation in AC frequency and DC voltage, this control strategy dynamically modifies the system’s virtual momentum when the performance differs from the nominal voltage. Xia et al., [
23] proposed an HMG configuration for a grid-connected microgrid with a DC link at back-to-back converters. An additional DC bus connection can make it easier to use the DC microsources than a back-to-back connection between two AC systems, which might provide a dependable, isolated, and effective coupling. In order to guarantee voltage stability and power equilibration between the AC and DC grids, a BAC is required for HMGs.
Majumder [
48] created a flexible detection method that validates reaction time while taking into account detection performance. However, the grid voltage magnitude was impacted by the effectiveness of the detecting system. The identification impact is highly consistent, there are no complex matrix modifications needed. Based on the study of harmonic identification, the appropriate control method is required to perform the power transfer between the AC and DC sub microgrid [
49]. Toghani et al. [
50] implies a more effective droop control (DRC) strategy that puts BAC in a shutdown state and stops power electrical device activities. The DRC methods mentioned above are predicated on perfect conditions. NL loads in a grid are not taken into account. A NL load can generate further power outages and conflicts with equipment linked to the grid when it alters the current.
A harmonic rectification system of integrated converters is described by Tian et al. [
51] using the NL control approach. The instantaneous depiction of the harmonic component on the PWM signal greatly reduces the influence of bandwidth management on harmonic voltage minimization. The above approach does not have a high compensating harmonic accuracy. Liu et al. [
52] present the parallel functioning transformer with a mutual filter. This method provides a high attenuation capacity, a reduced resonance risk, and enhanced filtering performance. The aim of the multi-mode control scheme for combining interface converters is to address unbalanced power quality (PQ) problems in a targeted manner and within a limited area of application, as stated by Senthil Kumar et al. [
53].
When a microgrid is cut off from the main grid and running autonomously with small sources and loads, it is referred to as being in island mode [
54]. Power to the PCC is abruptly interrupted while switching from grid-connected mode to islanded mode. If this electricity goes to the microgrid before the changeover, there will be a power shortage in the microgrid after the system switches to island mode. The island mode HMG system is shown in
Figure 2, where the DC bus is interconnected to the PV, wind turbine, and HSS. A hydrogen storage tank, an electrolyzer, and a FC make up the HSS. It is being examined if the HMG system can optimize each power source in accordance with the levelized cost of energy. Therefore, a load profile is a tool to aid in pointing the direction of HSS growth. Active and reactive power changes are effectively suppressed while current distortion is decreased when a percentage resonant controller is integrated with the BAC.
In recent times, meta-heuristic optimizing techniques were applied to identify the best structure, scale, and energy management for hydrogen-based HMG systems. Mohseni et al. [
55] evaluated the economics of designing hydrogen-based HMG using several meta heuristic-driven algorithms. Abdelshafy et al. [
56] presented a non-sorting genetic algorithm (GA)-based optimum energy management technique for on-grid dual storage systems powered by PV and wind systems. There are several nature swarm techniques to address problems with HMG systems. Edathi et al. [
57] used ant colony and cuckoo search-based metaheuristic optimization approaches to predict the best possible economic operation for HSS. Using multi-objective heuristic optimization techniques, Li et al. [
58] investigated how energy storage may be integrated into isolated microgrids. According to the analysis of the aforementioned investigations, virtually a single evolutionary algorithm was tested, exposing the answer for local optima. Additionally, testing two hybridized meta-heuristic algorithms is a viable option with plenty of room for further study to address these issues.
In summary, this paper makes significant contributions to the literature by providing an in-depth analysis of the energy storage techniques used in hydrogen-based HMG, developing the BAC for reactive power consumption, and outlining strategies for integrated solar, wind, and hydrogen systems that work in concert with the HMG’s electricity and energy management systems.
7. Future Aspects
Hydrogen offers significant potential as a future dream fuel, with numerous social, economic, and ecological impacts. It offers the long-term potential to diminish reliance on foreign oil while also lowering carbon and criterion emissions from mobility [
133]. Recent research was undertaken on the generation of hydrogen using biofuel waste glycerol, water, and benzene, among other things. Initiatives are being undertaken to investigate new cost-effective hydrogen storage and transportation techniques [
134].
The significant technological challenges must now be overcome in order to move away from a carbon-based energy system and toward a hydrogen-based market [
135]. The cost of producing and delivering hydrogen must be cut significantly, and that is very crucial. It is necessary to create new generations of stationary and mobile hydrogen storage solutions [
136]. Finally, it is necessary to lower the price of fuel cell as well as other hydrogen-based systems. The key marketplaces for hydrogen in the future are primarily influenced by four factors, such as the price of hydrogen in the future, the rate at which different technologies using hydrogen are developed, potential long-term limitations on greenhouse emissions, and the price of competing energy systems [
137]. The primary objective of future studies will be to create cost-effective microgrid systems with hydrogen generation and CO
2 data acquisition services by developing and applying novel evolutionary algorithms and microgrid infrastructure components that integrate sophisticated techniques and effective energy management tools [
138].
Intensive R&D was necessary for the effective execution of the hydrogen strategy in order to solve the technical issues and advance the adoption of hydrogen as the future of environmentally friendly mobility. The bulk of hydrogen produced today comes from the conventional process of using fossil fuels, which produces a sizable amount of CO
2. The main challenge is thus to produce hydrogen using renewable energy sources. This is a significant advancement toward green hydrogen [
139]. There are not many charging stations in the world. Despite the fact that certain governments are ready to spend money on creating hydrogen charging stations, demand is still minimal, and these stations are now not adequately profitable [
140]. When contrasted to hydrogen generated using natural gas, hydrogen made from renewable sources is extremely expensive and inefficient. Additionally, hydrogen is still extremely explosive. It needs to be stored and moved in large containers under pressure. Due to these difficulties, its use is still hindered in terms of security, logistics, and finances [
141].