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Review

Recent Advances and Challenges toward Efficient Perovskite/Organic Integrated Solar Cells

by
Soonil Hong
1,* and
Jinho Lee
2,*
1
Division of Advanced Materials, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Physics, Incheon National University, 119 Academy-ro, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2023, 16(1), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010266
Submission received: 28 November 2022 / Revised: 18 December 2022 / Accepted: 23 December 2022 / Published: 26 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Section A2: Solar Energy and Photovoltaic Systems)
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Abstract

:
Recently, emerging third-generation photovoltaic technologies have shown rapid progress in device performance; the power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of organic bulk heterojunction (BHJ) and perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are now surpassing 19% and 25%, respectively. Despite this dramatic enhancement, their efficiencies are theoretically limited based on the detailed balance model which accounts for inevitable loss mechanisms under operational conditions. Integrated solar cells, formed by monolithically integrating two photoactive layers of perovskite and BHJ with complementary absorption, provide a promising platform for further improvement in solar cell efficiency. In perovskite/BHJ integrated solar cells (POISCs), high bandgap perovskite offers high open-circuit voltage with minimal losses while low bandgap organic BHJ extends absorption bandwidth by covering the near-infrared region, resulting in additional photocurrent gain. Different from conventional tandem solar cells, integrated solar cells contain merged photoactive layers without the need for complicated recombination layers, which greatly simplifies fabrication processes. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in POISCs, including operational mechanism and structural development, and remaining challenges on the road toward efficient devices.

1. Introduction

Due to the risk of global warming and climate change, and the awareness of the importance of carbon neutrality, the development of renewable energy is considered more important than ever before. Solar cells using solar energy that is clean, infinite, and ubiquitous are considered the most popular next-generation energy sources. Silicon solar cells stand for representative and proven photovoltaic technologies for over half a century because of their robustness and long-term stability. However, technical difficulties originating from sophisticated and costly equipment, and complicated fabrication process impede their more widespread application. Recently, there has been growing interest in printable solar cells such as organic solar cells (OSCs) and perovskite solar cells (PSCs) owing to their advantageous features of printability, portability, and cost-effectiveness.
The perovskite materials have been reported to possess unprecedented optoelectronic properties, such as high charge carrier mobility [1,2,3,4,5,6], weak excitonic characteristics [7,8,9,10,11,12,13], intense optical extinction [14,15,16,17,18,19], and bandgap tunability [20,21,22,23,24], enabling rapid and continuous improvement of device performance in PSC application. On the other hand, OSCs are typically based on the organic blends of electron donor and electron acceptor materials, so-called bulk heterojunction (BHJ), as a photoactive layer [25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32]. Although the photoactive materials in OSCs and PSCs are inherently different, similar device architecture has been found to be useful for device operation; the photoactive layers are sandwiched between the charge transport layer, such as the electron transport layer (ETL) and hole transport layer (HTL). Intensive research efforts including materials development, device engineering, and morphology control lead to a dramatic improvement in power conversion efficiencies (PCEs), exceeding 19% and 25% for OSC and PSC, respectively [33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47].
Despite these competitive efficiencies and potential for further improvement, the theoretically achievable efficiency values are subject to the Shockley–Queisser (S–Q) limit based on thermodynamic principles where efficiencies of up to ~33% for single-junction devices are expected (Figure 1a) [48,49,50,51,52,53]. One of the effective ways to overcome this limitation is to fabricate a multi-junction (e.g., tandem) device by strategically stacking multiple photoactive layers with complementary absorption spectra [54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61]. In a tandem cell, each photoactive layer captures a different energy part of the solar spectrum, which is beneficial to mitigating the transmission and thermalization losses during the photon-to-electron conversion process, possibly resulting in performance enhancement (Figure 1b) [62,63,64,65,66,67,68]. However, complex device structure includes additional processing steps for recombination layers between sub-cells and therefore complicates the fabrication process. In addition, an increased number of junction interfaces that should hold favorable physical and electrical contact properties may cause additional losses.
Recently, integrated solar cells adopting two photoactive layers with the absence of a recombination layer open a new avenue toward high-efficiency solar cells. By monolithically stacking photoactive layers with complementary absorption spectra, the integrated solar cells provide extended photon utilization. Moreover, integrated solar cells are independent of the tedious photovoltage and/or photocurrent matching process, as suffered by conventional series and parallel tandem cells. Given that methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3), formamidinium lead iodide (FAPbI3), or triple cation/mixed halide perovskites exhibited a bandgap of ~1.55 eV with the highest PCEs for PSCs so far, perovskite/BHJ integrated solar cells (POISCs) are particularly promising; the solar light absorption bandwidth can be broadened by integrating a near-infrared (NIR)-absorbing BHJ organic photoactive layer (Figure 1c). Although the photoactive layer in integrated solar cells is merged to behave like a single layer, device operation in both OSCs and PSCs can be considered independent. In this review, we first discuss the operational mechanism of the PSC, OSC, and POISC, respectively, and then explore the structural development of POISC. Finally, we also address the challenges toward realizing efficient POISCs.

2. Operational Mechanisms

2.1. Perovskite Solar Cells

In a broad sense, the working mechanism of PSCs is similar to that of general solar cells, and photovoltaic processes are as follows: harvesting light energy, generation of free electrons and holes, charge transport by drift and diffusion, and charge collection at the electrodes (Figure 2) [69]. In order to conduct those working processes efficiently, the device structure has been developed from the first-time PSCs based on the architecture of dye-sensitized solar cells achieving 3.8% PCE in 2009 [70]. N.G. Park’s group replaced a dye sensitizer and a liquid HTL with a submicron-thick mesoscopic TiO2 and a solid hole-conductor spiro-OMeTAD so-called mesoscopic structure, thus they improved the PCE by exceeding 9% in 2012 [71]. From these pioneering works, most of the PSCs recorded on the “Best research-cell efficiencies on NREL chart” adopted the structure consisting of mesoscopic TiO2 filled with perovskite layer and spiro-OMeTAD HTL to date [72,73]. Following the development of mesoscopic TiO2-based PSCs, the study of planar-type PSCs has been conducted for facile and low-temperature processes eliminating the high-temperature sintered mesoscopic TiO2 layer [40,74,75].
Figure 3 depicts the evolution of the PSC structure from dye-sensitized PSCs to mesoscopic concept and planar-type PSCs [76]. The operational mechanism of dye-sensitized structure in PSCs is similar to the oxidation-reduction process of dye-sensitized solid-state solar cells (Figure 4) [77]. However, both mesoscopic and planar structures have different operational mechanisms for dye-sensitized structures, because the perovskite layer has a charge transport property with high mobility. To elucidate the operational mechanism of PSCs, the fundamental understanding of the electronic and optical properties of perovskite, their interaction with light, and the charge dynamics should be considered. Originally, the “perovskite” in PSCs refers to the class of organometal halide compounds having an ABX3 stoichiometry, in which A and B are organic cations (e.g., CH3NH3+, (NH2)2CH+) and post-transition metal cation (e.g., Pb+, Sn+), respectively, and X is a halide anion (e.g., Cl−, Br−, I−) [78]. This perovskite structure gave superior characteristics such as a long exciton diffusion length (~100 nm), a small exciton binding energy (~30 meV), a high absorption coefficient (~100 cm−1), and a low bandgap energy (~1.5 eV) [74,79,80]. By the development of the fabrication process, interfacial engineering, compositional modifications, and the improved crystallinity of perovskite, the certified PCE is boosted up to 25.7%, and opening new types of solar cells such as Si-perovskite tandem cells, perovskite-organic tandem cells, and perovskite-organic integrated cells, abbreviated as POISCs, are to be discussed in this review [81,82,83,84,85].
The evolution of PSCs is mentioned above, as research for eliminating complex ETL using mesoscopic TiO2 and high-temperature sintering planar TiO2, the planar-type PSC structure has been developed. The planar structure of the PSCs is also divided into a normal structure and an inverted structure, which has the same designation but an opposite structure compared to the structure of OSCs [40,73,74,75,76,86,87,88].
The early-stage PSCs based on n-i-p structure consist of substrate/cathode/ETL/perovskite photoactive layer/HTL/anode, thus the n-i-p structure is denoted as a normal structure, conventional structure, or regular structure in the field of PSCs. Since the early PSCs were mostly based on mesoscopic structure, the n-i-p structured devices have been efficiently developed [86]. For conventional n-i-p planar structures, extensive studies are started from dye-sensitized solar cells using a mesoscopic TiO2 as an ETL and a spiro-OMeTAD as an HTL [89,90,91,92,93]. The n-i-p planar structure seldom utilizes mesoporous materials, instead, they typically use inorganic materials such as compact TiO2, SnO2, ZnO as an ETL, and organic materials such as Spiro-OMeTAD and PTAA as an HTL [94,95,96,97]. Recently, many studies are being conducted to replace expensive Spiro HTL materials with cheaper Spiro-like HTL and PTAA [94,98,99]. The p-i-n planar structured PSCs have been developed by being derived from organic solar cells utilizing traditional organic HTL such as PEDOT:PSS and fullerene derivative ETL such as PCBM, C60 [100,101,102,103]. Additionally, inorganic semiconductor materials have been applied to charge transport layers such as NiO, CuO, VOx, MoOx as an HTL, and TiOx, SnO2 [104,105,106,107]. Z. Li et al., used organic charge transport layers, achieving the best PCEs as high as 25% and maintaining 98% of their initial PCE after the maximum power point tracking for 1500 h under AM 1.5 irradiation [108].

2.2. Organic BHJ Solar Cells

Due to the strong excitonic characteristics of typical organic semiconductors resulting from their low dielectric constants (in the range of 3 to 4), OSCs essentially require the photoinduced charge transfer and BHJ blend concepts for efficient charge generation and separation. The ultrafast electron transfer from an electron donor to an electron acceptor provides a driving force to overcome the binding energy of Frenkel exciton in organic semiconductors for dissociation (Figure 5) [109]. In addition, the nanoscale phase- separated electron donor:acceptor heterojunction contributes to solving the limitations of short exciton lifetime and diffusion length. Such innovative concepts lead to a dramatic improvement in the PCEs of OSCs.
A brief description of the working mechanism of the OSC is as follows: When either donor and/or acceptor absorbs the photons that have higher energy than the bandgap of the molecules, the electron in the lower energy state can be excited to the higher energy state, forming electron-hole pair so-called exciton. The tightly bound excitons migrate in the domain of the materials and subsequently meet the donor/acceptor interface to be separated within their lifetime, otherwise, they are recombined. At the heterojunction interfaces, offsets in electron affinity (i.e., the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital, LUMO) and ionization energy (i.e., the highest occupied molecular orbital, HOMO) drive electron and hole transfer, respectively. The photovoltage output in this organic BHJ system is closely related to the difference in energy between the HOMO level of the donor and the LUMO level of the acceptor, providing the driving force for charge separation. However, charge-transfer (CT) states formed at lower energies than charge-separated states before the complete separation of electron-hole pairs into free charges, which is a primary source of additional photovoltage losses in an organic BHJ blend system. Under a built-in electric field, free carriers are collected at their respective electrodes.
Considering that each donor and acceptor components form separated charge transport channels for hole and electron, respectively, within the organic BHJ films, the morphology of the bicontinuous interpenetrating network is crucial for facilitating ambipolar charge transport. The charge carrier mobilities, which can be inferior to perovskite, have a significant impact on the electrical characteristics of BHJ films in the same context [110,111]. In addition, optical absorption determines the photon harvesting region during the OSC operation. In consideration of the role of the BHJ layer in POISC, it is desirable to use organic semiconductors with NIR harvesting capability. The above optoelectronic properties can be modified through the molecular design of organic materials, highlighting the importance of the field of rational synthesis based on the structure–property relationship.

2.3. Perovskite/BHJ Integrated Solar Cells

The facile fabrication of the stacked perovskite/BHJ bilayer is made possible by the orthogonal solubility of the organic BHJ relative to the perovskite, without concern about intermixing problems [112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124]. It can be noted that reversed structure of BHJ/perovskite is typically undesirable because the conventional solvent of perovskite precursor solution (e.g., dimethylformamide) possibly dissolves fullerene and non-fullerene acceptors. When the light is incident into the POISCs, the perovskite layer initially absorbs the photon, followed by the transmission of part of the photons that possess lower energy than the high bandgap of perovskite. Due to the non-excitonic characteristics of perovskite, the exciton can be easily dissociated to generate electron and hole carriers. The photogenerated charges are transported within the ambipolar perovskite and extracted to the respective electrodes in which the induced internal electric field determines the direction of charge collection (Figure 6). The device structures, n-i-p and p-i-n types will be discussed in the later section.
For the operation mode of organic BHJ layers, the organic BHJ layer absorbs the remaining photons from the perovskite, which is particularly advantageous for OSC operation. This is because the organic solar cells exhibited high device performance than other competing solar cells under low light conditions. Under indoor light illumination, OSCs even outperform their performance measured in standard irradiation conditions [125,126,127]. If organic BHJ layers contain low bandgap materials (donor or acceptor), OSCs on top of perovskite can operate using only the NIR region and render POISCs’ photoresponsivity. In most cases, the organic BHJ layer should be comprised of donor:acceptor blend, otherwise, the single component of donor or acceptor seldom to contribute to the photocurrent if the film is thicker than the exciton migration length. In addition, in POISC, since the OSC serves as a charge transport layer of the PSC, it is important to achieve an energetic alignment considering the HOMO and the LUMO levels of each constituent material to facilitate charge transfer. We will further discuss this issue in the later section.
One of the biggest advantages of POISCs is that the open-circuit voltage (Voc) tends to follow the PSCs [128]. Recent studies have found that excess photogenerated charge carriers in perovskite diffuse to the BHJ layer to cause band bending, which, along with slow recombination in the BHJ layer, drives effective quasi-Fermi levels in the BHJ layer for both electrons (acceptor) and holes (donor). Such quasi-Fermi level splitting is increased and pinned to a value similar to that of perovskite (Figure 7). This effect becomes more prominent as the perovskite provides sufficient photogenerated charges to pin the quasi-Fermi levels in the POISCs. The mechanism supports that the OSCs are able to extend the absorption bandwidth of POISCs without sacrificing Voc.

3. POISCs with NIR-Absorbing Organic BHJ Materials

To overcome the absorption region (~800 nm) of single-junction PSCs, the NIR-absorbing organic BHJ materials can be stacked on top of the perovskite layer. As the solvent for dissolving the perovskite materials and organic BHJ materials is different, such a structure of POISCs is easily implemented without considering recombination layers to prevent solvent damage [129,130,131]. In 2014, Y. Yang’s group reported efficient n-i-p structured POISCs by integrating a low bandgap polymer PBDTT-SeDPP:PC71BM BHJ into a perovskite layer, achieving 12.0% PCE with the enhanced current density of 20.6 mA cm−2 due to a notable EQE response up to 900 nm [121]. In 2015, L. Ding’s group extended the onset of the absorbance up to 930 nm by implanting PDPP3T:PC61BM BHJ materials in p-i-n structured PSCs [117]. Owing to the simplicity of the process, the research for POISCs is mostly based on the p-i-n structure. From this structure, K. Lee’s group first reported enhanced PCE of the POISCs compared to the reference PSCs by introducing ternary BHJ materials consisting of diketopyrrolopyrrole-based low bandgap polymer DT-PDPP2T-TT as a donor, PC71 BM and n-type polymer N2200 as acceptors. The low bandgap polymer DT-PDPP2T-TT absorbed the NIR region up to 920 nm and n-type polymer N2200 increased electron mobility from 10−3 to 10−2 cm2V−1S−1, resulting in improved PCE from 14.70% to 16.36% [110].
After simultaneously improving the response of the NIR and UV region, H. Song’s group reported increased current density from 21.79 to 25.96 mA cm−2 and PCE from 20.52 to 23.40% compared to the reference cells [113]. These results are mainly attributed due to the maximum utilization of the NIR light and a double-cascade transfer path formed between perovskite and the ternary COTIC-4F:PC61BM:PTB7-Th BHJ interface, causing more light harvesting and efficient charge transport, respectively (Figure 8). In addition to the p-i-n structured POISCs, the n-i-p structured POISCs have been developed and approach the PCE of 23.5% similar to the p-i-n devices [114]. By introducing black phosphorous quantum dots into perovskite and organic BHJ materials, they successfully not only increase the onset of the absorption up to 930 nm but significantly decrease the Voc and FF loss of the integrated devices (Figure 9). Additionally, cuprous oxide (CuOx) is adopted as an HTL to construct a double-HTL structure with Spiro-OMeTAD for favorable energy-level matching. However, the overall PCE of POISCs is still lower than single-junction PSCs, suggesting more research for efficient donor:acceptor BHJ materials which serve as not only an improved response of the NIR region but are require a compatible charge transport with perovskite layer.

4. POISCs with Non-Fullerene Acceptor as a Surface Passivation Layer

For the optimized POISC device operation, the OSC should act as an ideal charge transport layer (electron or hole transport) of the PSC, but the morphology of the organic BHJ blend has a high probability of causing a loss in charge transport [109]. Utilizing a single organic material having a complementary absorption with perovskite may be advantageous in terms of charge transport, but there is a problem in that charge separation efficiency is lowered, which consequently hinders the contribution of photocurrent. Hu et al. demonstrated p-i-n structured PSCs with a non-fullerene acceptor, Y6, as a passivation layer to improve device efficiency and stability (Figure 10a) [132]. Depending on the molecular orientation of Y6 molecules, the thin layer of Y6 enables the reduction of the trap and therefore, non-radiative recombination losses, and protects the underlying perovskite layer from external harmful sources such as moisture (Figure 10b). Interestingly, photocurrent enhancement was observable in the region from 800 to 940 nm where perovskite has no absorption (Figure 10c). These results reflect that the perovskite with Y6 heterointerfaces acts as a charge separation interface. Since the underlying mechanism of charge generation at perovskite/Y6 is different from that of the typical donor/acceptor in organic BHJ, as confirmed by steady-state microwave conductivity (SSMC) measurements, further study should be made to clarify this issue (Figure 10d).

5. POISCs with High Bandgap Perovskite Materials

The high bandgap perovskite provides exceptional advantages of high Voc values and enhanced stability compared with widely used mid-bandgap perovskite materials such as MAPbI3 and FAPbI3. Despite relatively narrow coverage concomitant with low Jsc output of high bandgap PSCs, the light absorption bandwidth can be extended by integrating low bandgap organic BHJ materials while maintaining their high Vocs. In 2020, Chen et al. developed POISCs using all-inorganic high bandgap perovskite CsPbIBr2 with PBDB-T:BT2b BHJ photoactive layers [133]. By adopting a recast strategy, the component materials of the top organic BHJ film were spatially redistributed to form a donor-rich top surface, which is beneficial to suppress the interface charge recombination (Figure 11a). As a result, POISC exhibited an extended photoresponse from 600 to 730 compared with control PSC, producing a high PCE of 11.08%, benefiting from the 20% increase in Jsc (Figure 11b). Similarly, Wang et al. demonstrated CsPbIBr2-based POISCs by incorporating P3HT:PCBM BHJ that present an additional photoresponse from 600 to 700 nm [134]. Notably, only 19 nm of the BHJ layer ensures expanded light harvesting and improved charge transfer dynamics, resulting in performance enhancement from 8.87% for original CsPbIBr2 PSCs to 11.54% for CsPbIBr2/P3HT:PCBM POISCs. Overall, the strategy of integrating high bandgap perovskite and BHJ OSC will be an effective strategy that can simultaneously target efficiency and stability.

6. Interfacial Engineering between Perovskite and Organic BHJ in POISCs

Since both perovskite and organic BHJ act as a charge transport layer to each other as well as a photoactive layer, interfacial charge transfer at the perovskite/BHJ interfaces is crucial for proper device operation. The perovskite forms an interfacial contact area with either donor or acceptor, both of which should provide hole and electron extraction capabilities, respectively, while blocking opposite charges. Interfacial engineering is a technique to improve the interfacial charge transfer characteristics by conducting physical or chemical modification on the surface of the layers. Wang et al. introduced the high-performing donor polymer, PM6, as a passivation layer to reduce the interface defects and thus inhibit non-radiative recombination in which PM6:Y6:PCBM serve as a NIR harvesting organic BHJ layer [135]. In a control device, the HOMO level of PM6 is 5.54 eV which is slightly shallower than that of perovskite (5.57 eV), resulting in a weak but distinct energetic barrier. This may hinder the efficient hole transfer at the perovskite/PM6 interface. For the target device, however, the ultrathin polymer layer effectively tunes the surface energetics for matched energy-level alignment. As a result, POISC exhibits a high PCE of 19.15%, higher than the PCE of control PSC (16.33%). A similar approach was used to modify the interfacial characteristics by Zhou et al. [136]. The author demonstrates the importance of the passivation effect by using NIR polymer DTBTI; O, S, and N atoms in the DTBTI strongly interact with Pb and Sn atoms in perovskite, which effectively passivates the defects of the perovskite and thereby suppresses the charge recombination. In addition, by combining with PCBM, the DTBTI:PCBM system allows well-matched cascade-aligned energy levels with perovskite, resulting in a high PCE of 24.27%. Different from the photoactive material passivation, an interfacial layer-based modification was found to be useful in POISCs [118]. Ultrathin bathocuproine (BCP) and zirconium acetylacetonate (ZrAcac) was introduced between perovskite and BHJ, which helps to regulate carrier extraction and inhibit charge recombination. Once the surface is modified, the surface of perovskite yielded an upward shift of Fermi energy levels, confirming capacitance-voltage measurements. Consequently, the POISCs produced a high PCE of 19.4% with significant improvements in Voc and FF. Since a large number of materials have been developed to date, it is expected that interfacial engineering with suitable materials will further improve device performance.

7. Challenges

In POISCs, the perovskite and BHJ simultaneously perform the roles of the photoactive and ambipolar charge transport layers. Therefore, high electron mobility is a characteristic that should be considered as important as the absorption region in the design of the molecular structure. As revealed in previous research, perovskite generally offers outstanding charge transport capability whereas controlling factors of donor/acceptor energy levels, balanced mobility, and morphology are involved in determining the mobility characteristics of the organic BHJ system. Given the relatively low mobility of typical organic materials, optimizing BHJ layers remains challenging.
Another significant challenge lies in charge transfer at the heterointerfaces between perovskite and BHJ layers. The perovskite offers ambipolar character, whereas in BHJ, each donor and acceptor domain form hole and electron transport channels, respectively, indicating different energetic alignments at perovskite/BHJ heterointerfaces (Figure 12). To expand the light-harvesting area of POISC, organic materials that absorb longer wavelengths of light than perovskite (i.e., smaller bandgap than perovskite) must be used, which may pose a problem; in POISCs where the organic BHJ layer contains a polymer donor that absorbs the NIR region, the HOMO level of the donor polymer becomes shallower than the valence band level of the perovskite, resulting in inefficient hole transfer from the donor polymer to the perovskite. In the opposite case, using narrow bandgap acceptors, the HOMO level of the acceptor is shallower than the conduction band of the perovskite, resulting in energy transfer and/or recombination loss. To mitigate this energetic mismatch issue, energy-level shift using an interfacial modification layer would be a good approach to induce favorable interfacial contact for efficient charge transfer between perovskite and BHJ. Understanding the charge dynamics at the perovskite/BHJ heterointerfaces according to the energy-level modulation will be the first important step to realizing an efficient IPOSC.
The next essential step will be to develop the large-scale process for the transition from small-area POISCs to large-area POISC modules toward commercialization. Various printing processes such as blade coating, ink-jet printing, screen printing, and slot-die coating have been conducted to fabricate each PSC and OSC [137,138,139,140,141,142]. In the case of printed PSCs, numerous efforts have focused on a uniform, pinhole-free, and high crystalline large-area perovskite films with a minimum drop in the PCE of the devices. As representative research, J. Huang’s group reported a certified stabilized PCE of 18.6% at the area of ~30 cm2 mini-modules developing blade-coated perovskite layer with N2 knife blowing [143]. In the case of printed OSCs, the F.C. Krebs’ group have been pioneer researchers in this field, and then various printing studies such as solvent effect, temperature effect, additive effect, and coating parameter effect on organic photoactive layer or charge transport layer have been conducted for the fabrication of scaled-up OSCs [144,145,146,147,148,149]. As mentioned, printing processes for PSCs and OSCs can be integrated to fabricate large-area POISCs composed of a perovskite layer and BHJ layer.

8. Summary

In summary, we reviewed the working mechanisms of the POISCs including OSCs and PSCs, and analyzed current research trends of both n-i-p and p-i-n structured POISCs. The performance of parameters of the POISCs with different structural types and BHJ materials are summarized in Table 1. The most basic strategy to demonstrate efficient POISCs is broadening the light absorbance from the visible region of the perovskite layer to NIR by adopting organic BHJ consisting of low bandgap materials with high mobility. So far, previously reported BHJ or ternary organic layer have been integrated on top of the perovskite layer, which has long wavelength absorption causing increased Jsc and PCE. For the enhanced performance of the POISCs, more attention must be paid to a deeper understanding of the operational mechanism and which organic BHJ and perovskite layers are best. In addition, the development for scale-up of the devices and investigation of long-term stability was needed to guide next-generation solar power commercialization technology. We hope this review leads further research on designing highly efficient and long-term stable POISCs, and eventually, the transition from laboratory-scaled cells to large-area commercial modules will take place.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.H. and J.L.; investigation, S.S and J.L.; resources, S.H. and J.L.; writing—original draft preparation, S.H. and J.L.; writing—review and editing, S.H. and J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (No. 2021R1F1A1058019). The authors would like to thank the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE), Republic of Korea (No. 20203040010320) for the financial support.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Maximum achievable theoretical efficiency limit based on the single-junction solar cell under standard illumination conditions. (b) Solar spectrum. The inset schematically describes the crystal structure of perovskite materials and organic BHJ. (c) Representative absorption spectra of conventional perovskite (MAPbI3) and NIR-absorbing low bandgap BHJ films.
Figure 1. (a) Maximum achievable theoretical efficiency limit based on the single-junction solar cell under standard illumination conditions. (b) Solar spectrum. The inset schematically describes the crystal structure of perovskite materials and organic BHJ. (c) Representative absorption spectra of conventional perovskite (MAPbI3) and NIR-absorbing low bandgap BHJ films.
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Figure 2. Operational mechanism of PSCs: (1) Light absorption. (2) generation of electrons and holes. (3) charge transport and collection [69]. Copyright 2018. Springer.
Figure 2. Operational mechanism of PSCs: (1) Light absorption. (2) generation of electrons and holes. (3) charge transport and collection [69]. Copyright 2018. Springer.
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Figure 3. Advances in the PSC structure: (a) dye-sensitized structure. (b) meso-superstructure. (c) pillared structure. (d) planar structure [72]. Copyright 2015. Elsevier.
Figure 3. Advances in the PSC structure: (a) dye-sensitized structure. (b) meso-superstructure. (c) pillared structure. (d) planar structure [72]. Copyright 2015. Elsevier.
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Figure 4. Scheme for the charge transfer mechanism of dye-sensitized solar cells [77]. Copyright 1998. Nature publisher.
Figure 4. Scheme for the charge transfer mechanism of dye-sensitized solar cells [77]. Copyright 1998. Nature publisher.
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Figure 5. Schematic of excitonic processes in OSCs. Reproduced with permission [109]. 2021, Wiley-VCH.
Figure 5. Schematic of excitonic processes in OSCs. Reproduced with permission [109]. 2021, Wiley-VCH.
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Figure 6. Schematic illustration of charge separation and transport within BHJ and perovskite layers.
Figure 6. Schematic illustration of charge separation and transport within BHJ and perovskite layers.
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Figure 7. Energy-level diagram of POISC. The scheme describes the splitting and pinning of quasi-Fermi level to support the reason for high Voc in POISC. Reproduced with permission [128]. 2017, American Chemical Society. (a,c) open circuit condition (b,d) maximum power point.
Figure 7. Energy-level diagram of POISC. The scheme describes the splitting and pinning of quasi-Fermi level to support the reason for high Voc in POISC. Reproduced with permission [128]. 2017, American Chemical Society. (a,c) open circuit condition (b,d) maximum power point.
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Figure 8. (a) Device structure of integrated cells and molecular structures of COTIC-4F, PC61BM, and PTB7-Th. (b) Schematic of charge generation and transport mechanism (c) Schematic energy-level diagram of the device. (d) The extinction spectra of COTIC-4F, PTB7-Th, COTIC-4F: PC61BM: PTB7-Th, perovskite, perovskite/BHJ, and perovskite/BHJ with Au NTs hybrid films. Reproduced with permission [113]. 2022, Wiley VCH.
Figure 8. (a) Device structure of integrated cells and molecular structures of COTIC-4F, PC61BM, and PTB7-Th. (b) Schematic of charge generation and transport mechanism (c) Schematic energy-level diagram of the device. (d) The extinction spectra of COTIC-4F, PTB7-Th, COTIC-4F: PC61BM: PTB7-Th, perovskite, perovskite/BHJ, and perovskite/BHJ with Au NTs hybrid films. Reproduced with permission [113]. 2022, Wiley VCH.
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Figure 9. (a) Schematic of the optimal POISCs structure. (b) Perovskite film PM6 film BTP-4Cl-12 film normalized extinction spectrum and AM1.5G solar energy spectrum. (c) Chemical structure of black phosphorus, PM6, and BTP-4Cl-12. Reproduced with permission [114]. 2022, Wiley VCH.
Figure 9. (a) Schematic of the optimal POISCs structure. (b) Perovskite film PM6 film BTP-4Cl-12 film normalized extinction spectrum and AM1.5G solar energy spectrum. (c) Chemical structure of black phosphorus, PM6, and BTP-4Cl-12. Reproduced with permission [114]. 2022, Wiley VCH.
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Figure 10. (a) PSC with NIR-absorbing Y6 acceptor molecule for surface passivation layer. (b) Schematic of charge transfer between Y6 molecules depending on the molecular orientation. (c) External quantum efficiency spectra of PSCs with PCBM and Y6. (d) SSMC and UV-vis absorption spectra of BHJ (PM6:Y6) and perovskite/BHJ films. Reproduced with permission [132]. 2020, Elsevier.
Figure 10. (a) PSC with NIR-absorbing Y6 acceptor molecule for surface passivation layer. (b) Schematic of charge transfer between Y6 molecules depending on the molecular orientation. (c) External quantum efficiency spectra of PSCs with PCBM and Y6. (d) SSMC and UV-vis absorption spectra of BHJ (PM6:Y6) and perovskite/BHJ films. Reproduced with permission [132]. 2020, Elsevier.
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Figure 11. (a) Schematic illustration of the change in the spatial distribution of molecules in the BHJ layer by recast process. (b) the device structure of POISC and component materials. (c) current density-voltage characteristics and (d) corresponding external quantum efficiency spectra of the POISCs with different BHJ combinations. Reproduced with permission [133]. 2020, Wiley-VCH.
Figure 11. (a) Schematic illustration of the change in the spatial distribution of molecules in the BHJ layer by recast process. (b) the device structure of POISC and component materials. (c) current density-voltage characteristics and (d) corresponding external quantum efficiency spectra of the POISCs with different BHJ combinations. Reproduced with permission [133]. 2020, Wiley-VCH.
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Figure 12. The operational mechanism of p-i-n type POISCs. Charge separation and transport in OBHJ and perovskite layers are schematically described.
Figure 12. The operational mechanism of p-i-n type POISCs. Charge separation and transport in OBHJ and perovskite layers are schematically described.
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Table
Table 1. Summary of performance parameters for representative POISCs with different structural types and BHJ materials.
Table 1. Summary of performance parameters for representative POISCs with different structural types and BHJ materials.
TypePerovskiteBHJVoc
(V)		Jsc
(mA cm−2)		FF
(%)		PCE
(%)		Ref.
p-i-nMAPbI3-xBrxTT:PC71BM:N22001.0620.040.7716.36[110]
p-i-nMAPbI3PDPP3T:PC61BM0.8612.670.616.63[117]
p-i-nCs0.05((FAPbI3)0.87(MAPbBr3)0.13)0.95PTB7-Th:COTIC-4F1.1525.960.7823.40[113]
n-i-p(FA0.85MA0.15)Pb(I0.85Br0.15)3PM6:BTP-4Cl-12:BPQD1.1625.220.8023.52[114]
n-i-pMAPbI3-xClxDOR3T-TBDT:PC71BM0.9921.20.6814.3[121]
n-i-pCsPbIBr2PBDB-T:BT2b1.2212.50.7311.08[133]
n-i-pCsPbIBr2P3HT:PC61BM1.3111.790.7411.54[134]
p-i-n2D MAPbI3PM6:Y6:PC61BM1.1223.070.7419.15[135]
p-i-nFA0.7MA0.3Pb0.7Sn0.3I3DTBTI:PC61BM1.0729.080.7824.27[136]
p-i-n(FA0.95-xMAxCs0.05)Pb(I1-xBrx)3PDPP3T: PC61BM1.0622.540.8119.4[137]
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Hong, S.; Lee, J. Recent Advances and Challenges toward Efficient Perovskite/Organic Integrated Solar Cells. Energies 2023, 16, 266. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010266

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Hong, Soonil, and Jinho Lee. 2023. "Recent Advances and Challenges toward Efficient Perovskite/Organic Integrated Solar Cells" Energies 16, no. 1: 266. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010266

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