Towards the Integration of Flexible Green Hydrogen Demand and Production in Ireland: Opportunities, Barriers, and Recommendations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- The EU’s strategic objective from 2020 up to 2024 is to install at least 6 GW of renewable hydrogen electrolyzers in the EU and the production of up to 1 million tons of renewable hydrogen (produced using mainly wind and solar energy).
- In the second stage, from 2025 to 2030, electrolysis with a capacity of 100 MW next to existing industrial demand centers such as larger refineries, steel plants, and chemical plants will be rolled out. They would ideally be powered directly by local renewable electricity sources. Furthermore, hydrogen refueling stations will be used to support hydrogen fuel-cell buses and, at a later stage, trucks. Electrolyzers will thus also be used to locally supply an increasing number of hydrogen refueling stations.
- Contribute to increasing the trust of the stakeholders by supporting the demonstration of hydrogen technologies to prove that they met the readiness level required for their deployment.
- Determine which production pathways for low-carbon (green) hydrogen should be prioritized.
- Support the development of the hydrogen infrastructure (production, storage, distribution and delivery, refueling stations, consumption, etc.) by direct or indirect incentivization mechanisms.
- Stimulate the demand of green hydrogen in case the selling price of green hydrogen is too high.
- Establish a certification mechanism for green hydrogen.
- Electricity: 62–81%
- Transport: 42–50%
- Buildings: 44–56%
- Industry/Enterprise: 29–41%
- Agriculture: 22–30% reduction
- Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF): 37–58%
2. Methodology
- Support the development of a low-carbon hydrogen policy in Ireland;
- Collect evidence on the challenges and opportunities associated with the production of low-carbon hydrogen in Ireland;
- Collect evidence on the challenges and opportunities associated with the distribution and delivery of low-carbon hydrogen in Ireland;
- Collect evidence on the challenges and opportunities associated with the consumption of low-carbon hydrogen in Ireland;
- Revise the recommendations to the policymaker previously formulated.
3. A Hydrogen Policy in Ireland
4. Hydrogen Production
5. Hydrogen Distribution and Delivery
6. Hydrogen Consumption
7. Integration of Hydrogen in the Power System
8. Recommendations
8.1. Recommendation 1: Demonstrate the Use of Green Hydrogen in Road Transportation
8.2. Recommendation 2: Build-Up Additional Renewable Energy Sources for Green Hydrogen Production and Provide Support for Green Hydrogen Production Using Curtailed Renewable Power When Applicable
8.3. Recommendation 3: Incentivize the Production of Green Hydrogen by Introducing Quotas for Green Hydrogen to Drive Demand in Case Its Selling Price Is Too High and Allow Auctions for Hydrogen Production Using Electricity from Renewables
8.4. Recommendation 4: Demonstrate the Use of Hydrogen as a Flexibility Provider to Perform Power System Balancing
8.5. Recommendation 5: Investigate and Demonstrate the Blending of Hydrogen into the Existing Gas Network
8.6. Recommendation 6: Investigate the Feasibility of Low-Carbon Hydrogen Using Carbon Capture and Storage Technologies Applicable to Geological Basins and Structures in Ireland
8.7. Recommendation 7: Robustly Evaluate the Feasibility of Large-Scale Hydrogen Storage in Salt Caverns
8.8. Recommendation 8: Establish a Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standard for Low-Carbon Hydrogen That Meets Multiple Relevant Criteria
8.9. Recommendation 9: Demonstrate Storage and Conversion Technologies Such as Power-to-Gas and Gas-to-Power Conversion in Microgrids
9. Discussion
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Stakeholder Number | Type of Organization |
---|---|
1 | National association for hydrogen |
2 | Distribution System Operator |
3 | Manufacturer of electrolyzers |
4, 5 | Academic institution |
Type of Hydrogen | Production Process | Advantages | Disadvantages | Cost |
---|---|---|---|---|
Grey | Steam Reforming Stage 1: high temperature (700–1100 °C) endothermic reaction: CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2 Stage 2: low temperature (360 °C) exothermic reaction: CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 | The production process is well-established and cheap compared to other types of hydrogen | 10 kg CO2/kg Ten tons of CO2 are generated as waste per ton of hydrogen produced [67] | 1.5 €/kg [68,69] |
Blue | Steam Reforming with capture and storage of the produced CO2 or carbon capture and conversion | Low carbon emissions when compared to Grey, cheaper than Green 1 | Residual emissions of CO2 and fugitive methane are present. | 2–3 €/kg [68] |
Turquoise | Methane Pyrolysis the natural gas is broken down into hydrogen and graphite or carbon granules | The production process is carbon-free (no CO2 production at all) | Turquoise technology is promising but at the development stage [87]. | Not |
Green | Electrolysis of water 2H2O + electricity + heat → 2H2 + O2 Electricity and heat needed for the chemical reaction to happen are generated from renewable sources. | The production process is carbon-free (no CO2 production at all) | Production requires a renewable plant, solar or wind. Costs are currently higher than Blue. | 3.5–6 €/kg [68] Predicted in 2030: 0.7–1.8 €/kg [70] |
Pink | Electrolysis is powered by nuclear energy or thermochemical process using very high temperatures from nuclear reactors. | CO2 free production process but producing radioactive toxic waste in the long term | Non-circular and unsustainable production pathway; nuclear wastes are dumped in the oceans, where they remain a potential biological hazard for an extremely long time. | 2.3–2.5 €/kg [71] |
From biomass gasification (no color) | Biomass gasification Water shift reaction | Low net carbon emissions, offsetting the CO2 released from producing hydrogen with its consumption from plants’ growth process [72] | High capital cost of equipment. High biomass feedstock costs. | 4.7–6 €/kg [73] |
Type of Electrolysis Cell | Notes |
---|---|
| |
| |
| |
|
Alkaline Electrolysis | PEM Electrolysis | Solid Oxide Electrolysis | |
---|---|---|---|
State of development | Commercial | Commercial | Laboratory |
H2 production in m3/h (STP, per system) | <760, 2 MW | up to 450, 1.6 MW | - |
Electrolyte | Alkaline solution | Solid polymer membrane | ZrO2 ceramic doped with Y2O3 |
Charge carrier | OH− | H3O+/H+ | O2− |
Cell temperature in °C | 40–90 | 20–100 | 800–1000 |
Cell voltage in V | 1.8–2.4 | 1.8–2.2 | 0.91–1.3 |
System power consumption (current) in kWh/m3 H2 | 5.4–8.2 | 4.9–5.2 | - |
System power consumption (future) in kWh/m3 H2 (HS) | 4.3–5.7 | 4.1–4.8 | - |
Cold start time | Minutes–hours | Seconds–minutes | - |
Advantages | Available for large plant sizes, cost, lifetime | No corrosive substances, high power densities, high pressure > 100 bar, good dynamics | High electrical efficiency, integration of waste heat possible |
Disadvantages | Low current density, maintenance costs (the system is highly corrosive) | Expensive, fast degradation | Limited long-term stability of the cells, not suited to fluctuating systems, expensive |
Symbol | Meaning |
---|---|
wind energy used for electrolyzer system | |
dispatched-down wind energy used for electrolyzer system using battery storage | |
grid electricity used for electrolyzer system | |
electrolyzer rated power | |
average wind farm dispatched-down power in 10 min. used by the battery-electrolyzer system at time t | |
battery energy in 10 min. used by the electrolyzer at time t | |
total time when | |
wind farm dispatched-down wind energy in 10 min at time t when | |
average wind farm dispatched-down power in 10 min. at time t when | |
total time when |
Countries | Production | Consumption | Transport |
---|---|---|---|
Italy [15] | Electrolyzer capacity installation target of 5 GW by 2030 (12.5% of the European target). | Dedicated pipelines and adapted natural gas ones could likely accommodate half of the hydrogen trade, while the other half could be mainly transported on ships as synthetic fuels. | Prevalent consumption envisaged is blended with natural gas and injected into the natural gas network. |
Germany [142] | Green hydrogen is produced by electrolysis from renewable electricity. Blue hydrogen is obtained from natural gas by means of steam reforming using the carbon capture and storage (CCS) process. | Transport network connecting ports and wind parks by using (to some extent) already existing infrastructure such as pipelines and waterways. Pipelines currently still used for transporting low-calorific gas could be transformed and integrated into a hydrogen network. | Industrial sectors, as well as heating and transport. |
Poland [143] | Low-carbon hydrogen will be produced using steam reforming of hydrocarbons with CO2 capture and storage (CCS) or CO2 capture and use (CCU), coal gasification with CCS or CCU, biomass gasification with CCS or CCU, electrolysis using electricity from renewable energy sources, electrolysis using electricity from conventional sources with CCS or CCU, pyrolysis, and chemical processes that produce hydrogen as a by-product, including separation of hydrogen from coke oven gas. | Transmission of electricity to the place of hydrogen production, hydrogen transmission, SNG transmission with the existing gas network, or hydrogen transmission through dedicated pipelines. | Transport, industry, power generation, and heating |
UK [66] | Steam methane reformation (SMR) or autothermal reformation (ATR) with carbon capture, grid electrolysis, renewable electrolysis, low-temperature nuclear electrolysis, high-temperature nuclear electrolysis, bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, thermochemical water splitting, methane Pyrolysis (turquoise hydrogen). | Blending of hydrogen into the gas grid; development of a dedicated hydrogen grid extending up to tens or hundreds of kilometers that may include hydrogen converted and distributed as ammonia for use as a shipping fuel. | Agriculture, industry, residential, services and transport sectors |
France [144] | Electrolysis of water using decarbonized or renewable electricity. | Liquid H2, reuse in the gas network. | Industry (e.g., steel industry for the reduction of iron ore, or in the chemical industry for the manufacture of fertilizers), heavy-duty mobility (e.g., aircraft and ships). |
Spain [145] | Electrolysis to produce renewable hydrogen (using renewable energy). | Hydrogen pipelines and public access hydrogen stations. | All industries use hydrogen. Transport (fuel cell buses, light and heavy-duty fuel cell vehicles for freight transport), power sector (consumption of previously produced and stored hydrogen). |
Questions/Comments of Irish Government Consultation Document | Findings of this Paper | |
---|---|---|
Opportunities for green hydrogen production |
| Green hydrogen should be produced using mainly offshore wind, with a possible contribution of photo-voltaic production. A renewable electricity potential that does not have a route to market is curtailed energy. There is a concern regarding the usage of curtailed renewable energy to produce green hydrogen in relation to the possible very high costs. Electricity storage systems may add flexibility to the wind-electrolyzers systems, enabling a better harvesting of the curtailed energy, and must be studied in future research projects. |
Role of blue hydrogen | “There will also be other competing technologies to meet medium and high-temperature heat use, including electric technologies, biomass and carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) on sites with significant process emissions” | Possibly there will be no role for blue hydrogen due to a lack of trust in technology for carbon capture and storage (residual emissions might be too high) and concerns about Ireland’s dependence on imported natural gas. “Blue hydrogen in the short term” is considered a high-risk strategy and inconsistent with EU policy. |
Hydrogen infrastructure | Determining factors in identifying economic solutions include the available volume of hydrogen and the extent to which it could meet demand, the length of time it would need to be stored, site location, whether any existing infrastructure can be used or adapted, and the potential end-use application, in addition to the need to satisfy any regulatory and statutory criteria which may be put in place. |
|
Hydrogen in domestic heating |
|
|
Other technologies for the decarbonization of society | How does hydrogen compare to competing technologies (direct electrification and other decarbonization options) for each of these end-uses? | Heat pumps are the most efficient option, which comes with rather high installation costs. Blending green hydrogen into the natural gas grid risks being a ‘waste’ of precious green hydrogen, which could be used for different applications because direct electrification using heat pumps is more efficient and cost-effective. |
Green hydrogen certification | The options to produce renewable/green hydrogen will need to be examined in the context of the proposed changes to the Renewable Energy Directive (recast as RED III as part of the EU’s ‘Fit for 55′ package), particularly any requirements around co-location with new/existing generation and additionality. Certification will need to be examined to ensure the sustainability of hydrogen produced in Ireland. | Concerns arose from the additionality requirement of RED II in relation to green H2 production. Green H2 projects might be delayed if H2 production from the electrolyzer requires the commissioning of a new renewable asset to produce the electricity to power the electrolyzer. Moreover, green hydrogen might be very expensive if it could only be produced from curtailed renewable energy. |
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De Tommasi, L.; Lyons, P. Towards the Integration of Flexible Green Hydrogen Demand and Production in Ireland: Opportunities, Barriers, and Recommendations. Energies 2023, 16, 352. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010352
De Tommasi L, Lyons P. Towards the Integration of Flexible Green Hydrogen Demand and Production in Ireland: Opportunities, Barriers, and Recommendations. Energies. 2023; 16(1):352. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010352
Chicago/Turabian StyleDe Tommasi, Luciano, and Pádraig Lyons. 2023. "Towards the Integration of Flexible Green Hydrogen Demand and Production in Ireland: Opportunities, Barriers, and Recommendations" Energies 16, no. 1: 352. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010352