An Overview of Developments In Silica Gel Matrix Composite Sorbents for Adsorption Chillers with Desalination Function
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Adsorption Chillers—An Overview
2.1. Theoretical Background
2.2. Principle of Operation of an Adsorption Cooling System
2.3. Improvement of Performance Parameters of Adsorption Chillers
- Improvement of adsorbent properties that are beneficial for their use in adsorption chillers;
- Modification in the design of the heat exchanger in the adsorbent bed;
- Optimisation of the operating parameters of the adsorption unit;
- Modification in the cooling system, e.g., by using two or more adsorbent beds, using multistage systems, using either one or more refrigerant evaporation stages and using a redesigned cooling cycle.
2.3.1. Optimisation of Operating Parameters of an Adsorption Chiller
- A lower condenser cooling water temperature with constant heating and chilled-water temperatures results in higher SCP and COP values [45].
- A higher chilled-water temperature at the evaporator inlet has a positive effect on the cooling capacity value and COP of the adsorption chiller under constant heating and chilled-water temperatures [46].
- A higher chilled-water flow rate results in an increase in COP and cooling capacity [47].
- A higher heating-water flow rate results in an increase in cooling capacity and a decrease in COP [47].
2.3.2. Modification in the Design of Heat Exchanger in the Bed
2.3.3. Multibed Adsorption Chillers
2.3.4. Multistage Chillers
2.3.5. Process Modifications to Adsorption Chiller Operation
2.3.6. Selection of the Working Pair
2.3.7. Improving the Properties of Adsorbent Materials
3. Adsorbents, Adsorbates and Working Pairs—An Overview
3.1. Adsorbents
- Good affinity of the adsorbent to the adsorbate;
- Low regeneration temperature (evaporation of the adsorbate from the surface of the adsorbent);
- Adsorption capability of the adsorbate at low temperatures and low relative pressures;
- Large specific surface area;
- High porosity;
- High thermal conductivity coefficient;
- Ability to maintain stability of properties over time;
- Ability to adsorb a maximum amount of adsorbate per unit mass of sorbent;
- Nontoxicity;
- Nonflammability.
3.1.1. Silica Gel
3.1.2. Zeolites
3.1.3. Activated Carbon
3.1.4. Metal–Organic Frameworks
3.2. Adsorbent–Adsorbate Working Pairs
- High latent heat per unit volume;
- Low evaporation temperature;
- Small particle size;
- Low viscosity;
- Low specific heat;
- High thermal conductivity;
- Small volume in liquid state;
- Chemical and thermal stability;
- No negative impact on the environment;
- Nontoxicity and nonflammability.
4. Sorption Composite Materials with Silica Gel
4.1. Methods of Synthesis
4.2. Mechanism of Adsorption
4.3. Overview of Tests and Materials Tested
4.4. The Authors’ Own Research
Material | Porous Matrix | Addition | Percentage of Salt (%) | BET Specific Surface Area (m2/g) | BJH Pore Volume (cm3/g) | Water Uptake (g/g) | Synthesis Procedure | Desorption Temperature (°C) | COP in Adsorption Chiller | SCP in Adsorption Chiller (W/kg) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SWS-1L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt CaCl2 | 33.7 | - | - | 0.8 | Dry impregnation by saturation of mesoporous silica gel KSK with CaCl2 solution and drying at 150 °C. | 80–100 | max. 0.54 | - | [130] |
KSK * | Mesoporous silica gel | - | - | - | 1 | 0.1 | - | - | approx. 0.5 (model, for a desorption temp. of 95 °C) | - | [131,133] |
KSM * | Microporous silica gel | - | - | - | 0.35 | approx. 0.16 | - | - | - | - | |
SWS-1L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt CaCl2 | 33.7 | - | - | 0.75 | Silica gel granules were filled with a solution of appropriate inorganic salts and dried to constant weight at 200 °C. | - | 0.79 (model, for a desorption temp. of 95 °C) | - | |
SWS-1S | Silica gel KSM | Inorganic salt CaCl2 | 21.7 | - | - | approx. 0.25 | Temperatures of 70–130 °C were tested | 0.53 (model, for a desorption temp. of 90–100 °C) | - | ||
SWS-2L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt LiBr | 32 | - | - | - | - | - | |||
SWS-2L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt LiBr | 57 | - | - | - | 0.8 (at a desorption temp. of 95 °C) | - | |||
SWS-1L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt CaCl2 | 33 | - | - | - | Saturation of the pores of silica gel KSK with 40% CaCl2 solution and then drying to constant weight at 200 °C. | 80–100 | 0.6 (at a heat-source temperature of 90–95 °C) | 20 | [129,133] |
SWS-1L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt CaCl2 with added binder (25 wt%) | 33.7 | - | - | - | - | 90–100 | 0.15–0.30 | 150–200 | [141] |
SWS-1L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt CaCl2 | 33.7 | - | - | 0.63 | - | 80 | 0.39 | 510 | [160] |
SWS-2S | Silica gel KSM | Inorganic salt LiBr | - | - | - | 0.25 | - | - | - | - | [140,161] |
SWS-3L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt MgCl2 | - | - | - | 0.72 | - | - | - | - | [140,161] |
SWS-4L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt LiCl | - | - | - | 0.7 | - | - | - | - | [140,161] |
SWS-5L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt MgSO4 | - | - | - | 0.65 | - | - | - | - | [140,162] |
SWS-6L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt NaSO4 | - | - | - | 0.62 | - | - | - | - | [140,162] |
SWS-7L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt CuSO4 | - | - | - | 0.58 | - | - | - | - | [140,162] |
SWS-8L | Silica gel KSK | Inorganic salt Ca(NO3)2 | - | - | - | 0.42 | - | - | - | - | [140,163] |
SGA * | Microporous silica gel | - | - | 706 | 0.4 | - | - | - | - | - | [144] |
SGB * | Silica gel type B | - | - | 487 | 0.82 | - | - | - | - | - | |
SGC * | Mesoporous silica gel | - | - | 395 | 0.93 | - | - | - | - | - | |
SGA/LiCl | Microporous silica gel | Inorganic salt LiCl | 20 | 296 | 0.18 | - | Saturation of silica gel with an aqueous salt solution for 24 h, then a vacuum filter was used and the samples were dried for at least 4 h (to constant weight) at 120 °C. | - | - | - | |
SGB/LiCl | Silica gel type B | 36 | 205 | 0.46 | - | - | - | - | |||
SGC/LiCl | Mesoporous silica gel | 39 | 219 | 0.53 | - | - | - | - | |||
SGA/LiBr | Microporous silica gel | Inorganic salt LiBr | 27 | 148 | 0.08 | - | - | - | - | ||
SGB/LiBr | Silica gel type B | 42 | 127 | 0.26 | - | - | - | - | |||
SGC/LiBr | Mesoporous silica gel | 48 | 143 | 0.36 | - | - | - | - | |||
SGA/CaCl2 | Microporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 | 19 | 327 | 0.20 | - | - | - | - | ||
SGB/CaCl2 | Silica gel type B | 37 | 180 | 0.44 | - | - | - | - | |||
SGC/CaCl2 | Mesoporous silica gel | 41 | 165 | 0.42 | - | - | - | - | |||
Silica KSK * | Mesoporous silica gel KSK | - | - | 260 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | [150,164] |
SWS-8L | Mesoporous silica gel KSK | Ca(NO3)2 | - | 60 | 0.24 | 0.2–0.3 | Dry impregnation by saturation of mesoporous silica gel with an aqueous solution of calcium nitrate (45 wt% of salt). The material was dried at 200 °C. | 90–95 °C | 0.18–0.41 (depending on cycle time) | 190–389 (depending on cycle time) | |
SG * | Silica gel type C (pore size 2–3 nm) | - | - | 348 | 0.99 | 0.088 | - | - | - | - | [138] |
- | Silica gel type B (pore size 2–3 nm) | LiCl (10% solution) | 6.5 | - | - | - | First, the silica gel was dried at 120 °C. The silica gel was then immersed in aqueous LiCl solutions of 10–40% at 25 °C for 12 h. The sample was then dried to constant weight at 120 °C. | - | - | - | |
- | LiCl (20% solution) | 19.8 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |||
- | LiCl (30% solution) | 24.3 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |||
- | LiCl (40% solution) | 25,6 | - | - | - | - | - | - | |||
SLi10 | Silica gel type C (pore size 2–3 nm) | LiCl (10% solution) | 11.4 | 293 | 0.91 | 0.467 | - | - | - | ||
SLi20 | LiCl (20% solution) | 24.0 | 242 | 0.75 | 0.87 | - | - | - | |||
SLi30 | LiCl (30% solution) | 35.1 | 204 | 0.65 | 1.19 | - | - | - | |||
SLi40 | LiCl (40% solution) | 43.6 | 179 | 0.55 | 1.2 | - | - | - | |||
- | Mesoporous silica gel KSK | - | - | 350 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | [132] |
SWS-9L | Mesoporous silica gel KSK | LiNO3 | 34.5 | - | - | 0.22 | Drying of silica gel at 200 °C for 2 h. Then saturation of the silica gel with LiNO3 solution at 25 °C and drying to constant sorbent weight at 200 °C. | - | - | - | |
SCa17 | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 | 17 | - | - | 0.33 | Impregnation with an aqueous salt solution and drying at 120 °C. | - | - | - | [145] |
SCa33 | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 | 33 | - | - | 0.85 | - | - | - | ||
SG * | Silica gel | - | - | 481 | 0.844 | 0.444 | - | - | - | - | [137] |
SG + LiCl | Silica gel | Inorganic salt LiCl (50% solution) | 13 | 350 | 0.613 | 0.702 | Silica gel was dried in a vacuum dryer at 85 °C, and then a salt solution was added in the chamber and heated. The whole was then kept at room temp. for 24 h to saturate the matrix. The composite was dried at 120 °C to dry mass. This was followed by a procedure of removing excess salt (at 30 °C, RH 90%). | - | - | - | |
- | Mesoporous silica gel * | - | - | 529 | 0.806 | approx. 0.17 | - | - | - | - | [165] |
- | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 (10% solution) | - | - | 0.698 | approx. 0.44 | First, the silica gel was dried at 120 °C in an oven and then cooled in a vacuum dryer. Then the silica gel was immersed in a salt solution. During impregnation, the temperature was 25–80 °C and implementation lasted 1–8 h. | - | - | - | |
- | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 (20% solution) | - | - | 0.567 | 0.53 | - | - | - | ||
- | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 (30% solution) | - | - | 0.529 | approx. 0.6 | - | - | - | ||
- | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 (40% solution) | - | - | 0.395 | 0.74 | - | - | - | ||
SA0 * | Mesoporous silica gel | - | - | 300–400 | 0.75–1.0 | 0.02 (RH 20%) 0.059 (RH 50%) | - | 90 | 0.22 | 41.5 | [152] |
SB0 * | Silica gel type B | - | - | 450–600 | 0.5–0.8 | 0.019 (RH 20%) 0.072 (RH 50%) | - | - | - | - | |
SC0 * | Microporous silica gel | - | - | ≥600 | 0.35–0.45 | 0.047 (RH 20%) 0.228 (RH 50%) | - | - | - | - | |
SA50 | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 (50% solution) | 37.75 | - | - | 0.157 (RH 20%) 0.376 (RH 50%) | Silica gel was dried to constant weight at 120 °C. It was then cooled in a vacuum chamber to ambient temperature. The silica gel was impregnated with a 50% CalCl2 salt solution with deionised water for 48 h at 25 °C. The sample was washed with deionised water to remove salt from the surface and dried to constant weight at in a vacuum dryer at 120 °C. | 90 | 0.27 | 128.3 | |
SB50 | Silica gel type B | 41.3 | - | - | 0.156 (RH 20%) 0.376 (RH 50%) | - | - | - | |||
SC50 | Microporous silica gel | 23.08 | - | - | 0.07 (RH 20%) 0.214 (RH 50%) | - | - | - | |||
SA20 | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt CaCl2 (50% solution) | 15.38 | - | - | 0.084 (RH 20%) 0.234 (RH 50%) | - | - | - | ||
SB20 | Silica gel type B | 14.09 | - | - | 0.07 (RH 20%) 0.232 (RH 50%) | - | - | - | |||
SC20 | Microporous silica gel | 5.18 | - | - | 0.047 (RH 20%) 0.172 (RH 50%) | - | - | - | |||
SG | Mesoporous silica gel | - | - | 417.18 | 0.884 | - | - | - | - | - | [157] |
LiCl@SG_30 | Mesoporous silica gel | Inorganic salt LiCl | 29.5% | - | - | up to 0.74 | First, the porous matrix was dried at 150 °C. The matrix was then mixed with a LiCl solution (dry impregnation). After mixing, the material was left at room temperature for 24 h and then dried in an oven at 150 °C for 12 h. | - | - | - |
5. Discussion
- The operating parameters of the adsorption chiller (primarily the cycle time, the hot, cooling and chilled-water temperatures and the water flow rates in the hot, cooling and chilled-water circuits);
- The methods of synthesis and the materials/substances used in the synthesis that directly affect the properties of the composite sorbent.
- Chemical nature of the impregnating substance;
- Concentration of salt in the impregnating aqueous solution;
- Chemical nature of the porous matrix;
- Porosity of the matrix;
- Process conditions for the synthesis of the composite material.
- Preparation of a salt solution with appropriate mass concentration;
- Drying of the porous matrix to remove water (Aristov [140] suggests 120–180 °C);
- Wet or dry impregnation of porous matrix with salt;
- Drying of the composite material to remove water (Aristov [140] suggests 120–150 °C);
- Possible treatment of the material after synthesis.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Specific Surface Area (m2/g) | Pore Volume (cm3/g) | Source | |
---|---|---|---|
Silica gel Fuji Davison Type A | 650 | 0.36 | [92] |
Silica gel Fuji Davison Type 3A | 606 | 0.45 | [92] |
Silica gel Fuji Davison Type RD | 650 | 0.35 | [92] |
Silica gel Type-RD 2560, Fuji Silysia | 636.4 | 0.314 | [90] |
Silica gel Type-A5BW, KD Corporation | 769.1 | 0.446 | [90] |
Silica gel Type-A++, Mayekawa | 863.6 | 0.476 | [90] |
Silica gel Davisil Grade 646 | 300 | 1.15 | [96] |
Silica gel Grace SP2-8506 | 340 | 0.9 | [97] |
Location | Working Pair | Cooling Capacity (kW) | COP (-) | Heat-Source Temperature (°C) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cracow, Poland | Silica gel– water | 1.1 | 0.6 | 75–85 | [75] |
Tokyo, Japan | Silica gel– water | 3.54 | 0.34 | 55 | [99] |
Shanghai, China | Silica gel– water | 8 | 0.4 | 85 | [100] |
Messina, Italy | Silica gel– water | 10 | up to 0.6 | 65–85 | [101] |
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Sowa, M.; Sztekler, K.; Mlonka-Mędrala, A.; Mika, Ł. An Overview of Developments In Silica Gel Matrix Composite Sorbents for Adsorption Chillers with Desalination Function. Energies 2023, 16, 5808. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155808
Sowa M, Sztekler K, Mlonka-Mędrala A, Mika Ł. An Overview of Developments In Silica Gel Matrix Composite Sorbents for Adsorption Chillers with Desalination Function. Energies. 2023; 16(15):5808. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155808
Chicago/Turabian StyleSowa, Marcin, Karol Sztekler, Agata Mlonka-Mędrala, and Łukasz Mika. 2023. "An Overview of Developments In Silica Gel Matrix Composite Sorbents for Adsorption Chillers with Desalination Function" Energies 16, no. 15: 5808. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155808