A Systematic Study on Techno-Economic Evaluation of Hydrogen Production
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Bibliometric Results
- Energy and Fuels: This area is directly relevant as it covers studies related to the production, storage, distribution, and use of energy, including hydrogen as an energy source. Understanding the properties and energy potential of hydrogen is crucial to its techno-economic evaluation as well as its application in different sectors, such as transportation, industry, and power generation [11];
- Engineering: Engineering plays an essential role in the techno-economic evaluation of hydrogen production as it is involved in the design and development of processes, systems, and infrastructure related to this technology. Engineering is responsible for designing and optimizing hydrogen production processes, considering technical, economic, and sustainability aspects. In addition, engineers play a crucial role in implementing practical and efficient solutions for the use of hydrogen in various applications;
- Chemistry: Chemistry plays a significant role in analyzing and understanding the chemical properties of hydrogen as well as developing catalysts and chemical processes associated with its production. Chemical research is critical to improve the efficiency of hydrogen production processes, explore new feedstock sources, develop storage technologies, and advance the use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Understanding the chemical reactions involved in the production and utilization of hydrogen is critical to improving its technical and economic viability.
4. Systematic Results
4.1. Water Splitting
4.2. Biological
4.3. Thermochemical
4.4. Catalytic Reforming
5. Discussion
- The techno-economic assumptions of the models vary significantly, leading to a very broad levelized cost of electricity. This finding underscores the need to use comprehensive techno-economic assumptions that can accurately predict hydrogen costs [68].
- Many studies have focused only on the technical feasibility of hydrogen production, which can be private (or business synonyms) or social [23], leaving aside an in-depth analysis of its commercial viability. It is essential to investigate the economic aspects, such as large-scale production costs, market prices, potential demand, and viable business models, to drive the adoption and implementation of renewable hydrogen in various sectors.
- Few case studies perform systematic comparisons between different hydrogen production technologies and processes from different categories (Water splitting, Biological, Thermochemical, and Catalytic reforming). Most of the studies that perform this procedure are literature reviews, such as Mohideen et al. [69], which compares the levelized cost of different hydrogen colors to provide a clear view of the cost-related challenges and limitations in hydrogen production routes and discusses cost-effective hydrogen routes. Technical and economic comparisons between different production routes, such as water electrolysis, photolysis, and biomass reforming, among others, are fundamental to identifying the most efficient and economically viable options.
- Most existing studies focus on short-term analyses, leaving gaps regarding the long-term effects of hydrogen production and use. It is essential to consider factors such as the durability of production systems, changes in the energy market, public policies, and socio-economic implications over longer time horizons.
- While there is a growing awareness of the importance of sustainability and reducing carbon emissions, there are gaps in the literature regarding the comprehensive assessment of environmental impacts associated with renewable hydrogen production. Studies that analyze life cycles, greenhouse gas emissions, natural resource consumption, and other environmental impacts are essential to informed and sustainable decision-making.
- Climate and energy policies play a crucial role in developing a sustainable economy based on equally sustainable energy systems. Thus, significant efforts by policymakers and technology developers to create innovative strategies to reduce costs per scale of production, stimulate standardization, and develop new market structures and regulatory frameworks that promote large-scale hydrogen use are still lacking [17].
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Criterion | Description |
---|---|
Topic | Web of Science—TS = (“techno-economic” AND “hydrogen production”) OR TS = (“techno-economic” AND “production of hydrogen”) OR TS = (“technical and economic” AND “hydrogen production”) OR TS = (“technical and economic” AND “production of hydrogen”) OR TS = (“technological and economic” AND “hydrogen production”) OR TS = (“technological and economic” AND “production of hydrogen”) Scopus—TITLE-ABS-KEY (“techno-economic” AND “hydrogen production”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“techno-economic” AND “production of hydrogen”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“technical and economic” AND “hydrogen production”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“technical and economic” AND “production of hydrogen”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“technological and economic” AND “hydrogen production”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“technological and economic” AND “production of hydrogen”) |
Databases | Web of Science and Scopus |
Indexes | All indexes from both databases |
Inclusion | (I) Coverage time: all database years (1945–2023); (II) fit with the proposed objective; (III) relevance of the publication source. |
Qualification | (I) Does the research present a well-reasoned literature review? (II) Does the study present technical innovation? (III) Are the contributions discussed? (IV) Are limitations explicitly stated? And (V) are the results and conclusions consistent with the pre-established objectives? |
Search Date | 30 March 2023, at 10:00 a.m |
Publication Journals | P | IF (2022) | IF (Mean) |
---|---|---|---|
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy | 202 | 7.2 | 6.3 |
Energy Conversion and Management | 92 | 10.4 | 10.3 |
Applied Energy | 55 | 11.2 | 11.0 |
Journal of Cleaner Production | 41 | 11.1 | 11.0 |
Energy | 39 | 9.0 | 8.3 |
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews | 31 | 15.9 | 16.9 |
Energies | 29 | 3.2 | 3.3 |
Fuel | 28 | 7.4 | 7.0 |
Bioresource Technology | 23 | 11.4 | 10.6 |
H2 Production | Description |
---|---|
Water splitting | Chemical process which consists of the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen. |
Biological | Hydrogen production is performed by microorganisms at atmospheric temperature and pressure using several substrates. |
Thermochemical | Conversion of fossil fuels, biomass, or solid wastes into hydrogen-rich gases through the application of heat in the presence or absence of oxygen. |
Catalytic reforming | Catalytic conversion of hydrocarbons or other compounds and reactants, such as steam or oxygen, into hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. |
H2 Production | Description | |
---|---|---|
Electrolysis | Electrolysis is a chemical process in which water is split into oxygen and hydrogen by passing an electric current through two electrodes immersed in water via the following reaction (Equation (1)): | |
2H2O → 2H2 + O2 | (1) | |
H2 is formed in the cathode, while O2 is formed in the anode. The electricity source to generate hydrogen in the electrolyzers can be clean and renewable, such as wind and solar (photovoltaic) energy [30]. | ||
Thermolysis | Thermolysis, or thermochemical water splitting, is a chemical process in which the water is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen by applying heat. Since the temperature needed to separate the hydrogen is extremely high, generally over 2500 °C, several thermochemical water splitting cycles have been developed to lower the temperature and increase efficiency. The process consists of a series of chemical reactions taking place at different temperatures, which convert heat into chemical energy [29]. Some examples of technically feasible thermochemical cycles are Hybrid Sulfur (HyS), Copper–Chlorine (Cu-Cl), Magnesium–Chlorine (Mg-Cl), and Sulfur–Iodine (S-I) [31]. | |
Photolysis | Photolysis, or photochemical water splitting, occurs when the visible light’s energy is absorbed through a photocatalyst, and the water is decomposed into H2 and O2, similarly to electrolysis [29]. A solar photon is absorbed in some semiconductor material immersed in an aqueous electrolyte, forming an excited electron–hole pair, which will be separated by the electric field between the semiconductor and the electrolyte. The excited holes remain in the anode where the oxygen evolution reaction occurs, while the electrons are consumed by the hydrogen evolution reaction in the cathode [29,32]. |
H2 Production | Description | |
---|---|---|
Bio-photolysis | Bio-photolysis is a photo-driven biological process that can be divided into direct bio-photolysis and indirect bio-photolysis. Direct bio-photolysis is an aerobic process which uses microalgae to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, similarly to the photosynthesis process. The hydrogen ions are converted into hydrogen gas by the hydrogenase enzyme. The process is summarized via the following reaction (Equation (2)): | |
2H2O + solar energy → 2H2 + O2 | (2) | |
Indirect bio-photolysis is an anaerobic process wherein microalgae or cyanobacteria produce hydrogen in two steps: the first uses light energy to produce carbohydrates, and the second involves CO2 capture and carbohydrate fermentation, as follows in Equation (3) [42,43]: | ||
C6H12O6 + 6H2O + solar energy → 6CO2 + 12 H2 | (3) | |
Dark fermentation | In dark fermentation, the biochemical energy stored in organic waste or biomass is converted into H2 in the absence of light [25]. Dark fermentation is carried out by anaerobic bacteria or, in some cases, by a carbohydrate-rich algae. The overall reaction of dark fermentation is represented by Equation (4): | |
C6H12O6 + 2H2O → 2CH3COOH + 4H2 + 2CO2 | (4) | |
Photo fermentation | Photo fermentation is carried out by photosynthetic microorganisms employing the conversion of organic compounds, such as organic acids, organic acid-rich wastewater, or organic acid-rich biomass, leading to hydrogen and carbon dioxide using light as the energy source [43]. The overall reaction, with acetic acid as the reactant, is represented by Equation (5) [29]: | |
CH3COOH + 2H2O + light energy → 4H2 + CO2 | (5) |
H2 Production | Description | |
---|---|---|
Pyrolysis | Pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition process which takes place in an inert atmosphere, i.e., in the absence of oxygen [45]. Pyrolysis can be carried out using fossil fuels, such as hydrocarbons, or renewable sources, such as biomass. Hydrocarbon pyrolysis is an established process wherein the hydrocarbon is the only source of hydrogen and may be driven by a catalyst through the following reaction (Equation (6)) [29]: | |
CnHm → nC + ½ mH2 | (6) | |
On the other hand, biomass pyrolysis has gained attention as an innovative and cost-effective alternative for hydrogen production [45]. | ||
Gasification | Gasification consists of the burning of carbonaceous materials in the presence of controlled oxygen or steam at a high temperature and pressure, obtaining syngas, i.e., H2 and CO. Coal gasification is one of the main processes for hydrogen production in the industry (accounting for 18% of the global production), and just a small portion is obtained from Biomass and solid wastes [46]. | |
Combustion | Combustion is the direct burning of fossil fuels or biomass under air, converting the chemical energy into heat and several combustion by-products [47]. | |
Liquefaction | In liquefaction, biomass is heated to 525–600 K in water under 5–20 MPa of pressure, but the operational conditions are difficult to achieve and the hydrogen production is low [47]. |
H2 Production | Description | |
---|---|---|
Steam reforming | Natural gas (80% methane) steam reforming is the main route used to produce hydrogen in the industry, accounting for around 50% of global hydrogen production [50]. Nickel-based catalysts are employed, and the reaction is performed at high temperatures. The first step is the methane steam reforming reaction (Equation (7)), producing syngas in a H2/CO ratio equal to 3 (Equation (8)); and the second step is the water–gas shift reaction, converting CO into CO2 and increasing the yield of H2 [51]. | |
CH4 + H2O→ CO + 3H2 ΔH° = 206 kJ/mol | (7) | |
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 ΔH° = −41 kJ/mol | (8) | |
Partial oxidation | Partial oxidation consists of the combustion of the hydrocarbon with oxygen, producing syngas in a H2/CO molar ratio of 2. The catalytic process is performed at 800–900 °C and the non-catalytic process at 1200–1500 °C [51]. The catalytic partial oxidation of methane follows the reaction (Equation (9)): | |
CH4 + ½ O2 → CO + 2H2 ΔH° = −36 kJ/mol | (9) | |
Autothermal reforming | Autothermal reforming combines non-catalytic partial oxidation, steam reforming, and water–gas shift reactions. The process occurs in one reformer, wherein the heat released by the partial oxidation keeps the high temperature in the reactor [51]. | |
Dry reforming | The dry reforming of methane has recently gained attention as an alternative to the use of biogas, which is composed of methane and CO2, as it involves the use of renewable raw materials and greenhouse gas capture [52]. The dry reforming of methane consists of a reaction between CH4 and CO2 (Equation (10)), producing syngas in a H2/CO molar ratio lower than 1, due to the occurrence of the reserve shift reaction [51]: | |
CH4 + CO2 → 2H2 + 2CO ΔH° = 260.5 KJ/mol | (10) |
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de Abreu, V.H.S.; Pereira, V.G.F.; Proença, L.F.C.; Toniolo, F.S.; Santos, A.S. A Systematic Study on Techno-Economic Evaluation of Hydrogen Production. Energies 2023, 16, 6542. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186542
de Abreu VHS, Pereira VGF, Proença LFC, Toniolo FS, Santos AS. A Systematic Study on Techno-Economic Evaluation of Hydrogen Production. Energies. 2023; 16(18):6542. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186542
Chicago/Turabian Stylede Abreu, Victor Hugo Souza, Victória Gonçalves Ferreira Pereira, Laís Ferreira Crispino Proença, Fabio Souza Toniolo, and Andrea Souza Santos. 2023. "A Systematic Study on Techno-Economic Evaluation of Hydrogen Production" Energies 16, no. 18: 6542. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186542
APA Stylede Abreu, V. H. S., Pereira, V. G. F., Proença, L. F. C., Toniolo, F. S., & Santos, A. S. (2023). A Systematic Study on Techno-Economic Evaluation of Hydrogen Production. Energies, 16(18), 6542. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186542