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Review

Abrasive Technologies with Dry Ice as a Blasting Medium—Review

by
Aleksandra Dzido
* and
Piotr Krawczyk
*
Institute of Heat Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Nowowiejska 21/25, 00-665 Warszawa, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2023, 16(3), 1014; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031014
Submission received: 10 November 2022 / Revised: 5 December 2022 / Accepted: 6 January 2023 / Published: 17 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Section K: State-of-the-Art Energy Related Technologies)
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Abstract

:
The objective of this work was to present an overview of abrasive technologies with solid carbon dioxide as a blasting medium. These methods can be successfully used for the removal of a wide range of types of industrial pollution. The article covers literature reports in the field of the examined cleaning mechanisms and manufacturing process of dry ice, focusing on the structure and size of the product. Having the correct understanding of these processes is crucial for further technological development. Then various configurations of the dry-ice-blasting and snow-blasting systems are presented, including a range of typical parameters met in the literature and in industrial applications. Because the nozzle can be treated as a key part of the system, typical examples of nozzles are described. Special attention is paid to the usability of each type. This study also covers the actual scope of applications for the described systems, especially in industry and science.

1. Introduction

Industrial pollution seems to still be a challenge for current plant operators. The pollution can be defined as the presence of undesired substances in the environment. In the industry, a wide range of the pollutants exist, depending on the production sector. Because the electrical devices that I focus on in this thesis are present in numerous plants, the wide range of the pollutants can contribute to negative consequences. Among the most often present, the following contaminants can be enumerated [1]:
  • Rust.
  • Oils and grease.
  • Acids.
  • Organic dirt.
  • Soot.
  • Dust (i.e., heavy dust, technological dust).
During the operation of the production line, postproduction wastes can be generated, which build up on motors, transformers, and other electrical devices. What is more, postproduction dust can self-ignite, which, in conjunction with a sparking or overheating electrical system, poses a serious risk. During the operation of machines, particles of oil are also floating in the air, which can mix with dust. Such a mixture in the presence of oxygen from the air is believed to be a serious fire hazard. Impurities can contribute to the devices’ efficiency decrease, their improper operation, or damage [2], leading, in worst case scenarios, to factory shutdown, usually accompanied by significant economic losses, fire, extensive property damage, threats to human life and health, and the others. Periodic cleaning of the production line, individual machines, and especially the electrical systems’ components is necessary to maintain safe working conditions for people and infrastructure [3].
The need for surface cleaning exists in numerous industrial sectors. Each cleaning application demands fulfilling special requirements to ensure satisfying results while providing no-surface and device-damage-cleaning conditions. What is more, the cleaning system operators and device safety should be taken into account. In light of all these rules, various cleaning methods have been developed over the years. They can be generally divided into physical, chemical, and physicochemical methods.
Each of them has some drawbacks, such as moisture operating conditions occurring during surface washing with detergents, environmental risks resulting from implementing toxic solvents, or a significant amount of waste from the blasting medium in the case of sandblasting. The need to overcome these disadvantages was the motivation to develop a new industrial cleaning method. The idea conceptualised in the 1930s [4] was to use solid carbon dioxide as a blasting medium in blasting technologies. The system was patented in 1977 by C.C. Fong [5]. The Lockheed Corporation [6] responded this commercial desire by developing dry-ice blasting technology in the technical scale at the beginning of the 1980s, to make the first cleaning unit commercially available in 1985. Although the dry-ice blasting method is widely applied in various industry sectors, so far few scientists have addressed their interest in this cleaning method. It can be proved by number of articles published in this topic (Figure 1).

2. Cleaning Mechanisms

There are various phenomena related to pollution removal during the abrasive surface treatment with solid CO2 particles. The process is based on pollution removal through the sped-up air and dry-ice mixture. The dry-ice blasting cleaning mechanism is based on three main phenomena: the thermal effect (cooling), abrasion using flow kinetic energy, and sublimation [7]. During the first one, the mixture reaches the dirty surface and cools it down [8], which contributes to the pollution’s cracking [9]. Then dry-ice particles sublimate, which causes local volume growth (by a factor of 800 [10,11]) and the pollution crush. The cooling effect is caused by two phenomena: (1) convection due to surface washing in the stream of high-speed, cold gases and (2) sublimation. Sublimation heat from dry ice equals to 573 kJ/kg. Assuming dry-ice effective mass flow (mass flow of the dry ice which leaves the nozzle, so it hasn’t been sublimated in the devices) at the level of 30 kg/h and an interaction surface of 0.00025 m2 (example nozzle outlet), the heat flow resulting from sublimation equals to 19.1 MW/m2. Finally, the impurities are entrained by the air stream. As the abrasive medium sublimates, the only waste consists of the impurities present in the pollution layer. The CO2 in the gaseous form leaves the cleaning zone. The blasting mixture force in the cleaning surface area consists of three components: force related to pressurised air impact, force caused by high-speed dry-ice particles clashing, and force generated by the rapid volume growth of sublimated particles [12]. The dry-ice cleaning mechanism scheme is presented in Figure 2.
There is one more phenomenon reported in the literature which contributes to pollutant removal during the dry-ice blasting. As it was shown in [14], liquid carbon dioxide is prone to soluble nonpolar hydrocarbons. The liquid form of carbon dioxide may occur under blasting conditions when the impact force causes pressure to grow above the triple point. In such a case, liquid CO2 works as a solvent. In the next step, the pressure decrease causes the carbon dioxide particles to bounce from the polluted surface. Under such temperature and pressure, parts of the CO2 resolidify, contributing to the removal of some of the impurities. To confirm this phenomenon in the macroscopic way, numerous organic substances were cleaned with dry-ice blasting [15]. It was reported that cleaning efficiency growth was related to substance solubility in carbon dioxide, which seems to be in agreement with the theory of pollutant removal in the liquid layer of CO2 occurring during the dry-ice blasting process.

3. Cleaning Systems

3.1. Dry-Ice Manufacturing Process and Its Bahaviour in the Blasting System

Dry ice is the colloquial name for carbon dioxide in the solid state, which under atmospheric pressure easily sublimates [14]. Carbon dioxide (CO2) under normal temperature and pressure is a colourless, odourless gas heavier than air. Because of its thermochemical properties, it can be widely applied in industrial cleaning and in cooling systems, such as for nuclear reactor cooling [16], and as the working medium in thermodynamic cycles [17].
The solidification temperature of CO2 under normal pressure equals to −78.5 °C [18]. This low temperature can be obtained by pressurised gas throttling in the Joule–Thompson valve, such as in the case of other gases’ liquefaction [19,20]. Liquefied carbon dioxide can be also obtained from other industries, where it is treated as waste. Examples include fossil fuel carbon-capture installations [21], ammonia production, refineries, ethanol production, chemical manufacturing, and others [22]. It means that CO2 can be easily gained and used in the process with no additional emission. Liquefied carbon dioxide is then pumped to increase the pressure and obtain thermodynamic conditions, in which solidification occurs [23].
From the thermodynamics point of view, all carbon dioxide liquid has to be transformed into a solid and be treated in conditions maintaining the solid state of the CO2. Practically, CO2 fluid at a temperature of −20 °C and under pressure at 12–20 bars goes though the throttling valve to decrease the pressure to 1 bar. In this process, the carbon dioxide temperature decreases to −78.5 °C, in which its solidification occurs [12]. This form is called CO2 snow. Then the desired form of the solid particles has to be produced. Usually, this step takes place in a pelletiser machine in which the snow is being pressed at the low temperature, generating pellets with a diameter in the range from 3 mm to 5–10 mm (Figure 3) [21]. The material hardness in a Mohs scale reaches approximately 1.5 [24].
So far, few scientists have addressed dry-ice particle behaviour in dry-ice blasting systems. Aiming at determining a dry-ice particle model, the first main physical phenomenon should be understood and described. As the crystal structure of the pellet introduced to the blasting machine could be important, one should start with the dry-ice pellets manufacturing process. As already mentioned, dry ice is obtained by liquid carbon dioxide expansion in the throttling valve. Because of the Joule–Thompson effect, CO2 droplets are cooled down and solidify [25]. Then, depending on the expansion nozzle parameters, dry-ice particles can create conglomerates [26,27]. At this step, the obtained particles are characterised by diameters at the range from several μm up to approximately 500 μm [28,29,30], but most of them remain within the range of 50 to 500 μm. This carbon dioxide form is called snow. In the next step, carbon dioxide snow is pressurised and passes through the strainer aimed at creating pellets [12]. Dry ice produced this way can then be stored and transported in insulated tanks, i.e., such as presented in [29]. The research presented in [30] showed the nonhomogenous structure of CO2 pellets, in which spontaneous decomposition was noted while immersing pellets in liquid nitrogen. The sizes of the secondary-generation particles are within the range of those produced before pellet generation. This decomposition is suspected to be related to the manufacturing process of the pellets, in which a homogeneous structure was observed. These facts are supported by the lower densities of the pellets in comparison with the material properties of dry ice [31].
Described above, dry-ice pellets are introduced to the dry-ice blasting system (described in chapter 3), where they are mixed with the air via rotary dispenser or screw feeder. The air-particle mixture is sped up in the rubber hose at the typical length of several meters (i.e., 5 m [32]). In the next step, two-phase flow enters and proceeds via the blasting nozzle, in an analysed case of a convergent-divergent one, where while sufficient pressure difference has been applied, it reaches supersonic speeds. The outflow is then directed to the surface being cleaned.
Room conditions, which are assumed to lead to the dry-ice-blasting process, are far from the necessary thermodynamic equilibrium conditions for dry ice (sublimation temperature under normal pressure equals to −78.5 °C [30]), so mass losses via sublimation are suspected. This was confirmed by studies presented in [33], where six particle diameters were considered, covering the range from 10 μm to 500 μm, which corresponds to the initial snow particle sizes. The results presented in this paper show a linear particle diameter decrease from how the ambient conditions passed to some point, depending on the diameter. Then a rapid diameter drop was shown, corresponding to total particle sublimation.
Another phenomenon predicted in the dry-ice blasting system happens after impact sublimation, usually related to particles breakup. So far, few scientists have addressed dry-ice-pellet behaviour impacting a stationary wall. More experiments and models have been conducted on water ice. A detailed dry-ice particle breakup model was found only in [31]. The experiments presented there covered particles sizes from 250 μm up to 4000 μm, impacting the wall with velocities from 1 to 120 m/s, at impact angles of 0–89° and at temperatures within the range of −50 to +250 °C. Temperature seems to have no significant impact on the particle breakup effects. It is supposed that secondary particle sizes are only a function of primary particle kinetic energy and impact angle. Generally, the primary particle disintegrates after the particle wall contacts the secondary particles; the collision associated with the phenomenon is a solid particle mass decrease caused by dry-ice sublimation. Secondary particles are reflected from the nozzle at various velocities and angles. The energy needed for the particle breakup can be calculated with Equation [31]:
E i ,   b u = Υ 0 · C A , b u · d i 2
Υ 0 = 0.095   J / m 2 ,
C A , b u = 0.242 ,
while assuming manufacturing pressure to be 100 bar and using Y C O 2 = 1395   GPa . It can be summarised that the particle breakup energy depends only on its initial diameter. Depending on the particle size and the velocity vector normal to the wall, two main scenarios were identified: minor and major particle breakup. Minor breakup was noted under low velocity impact. In this case, among secondary particles, one main particle at the diameter comparable to the primary particle was observed associated with a small number of small secondary fragments. Major particle fragmentation occurs when the velocity vector normal to the wall is significant. This breakup is characterised by numerous secondary particles of comparable diameters—noticeably lower than the primary particle dimension. Minor and major breakup regions for particle impact velocity and diameter are presented in Figure 4. Although in [31] the detailed breakup model is presented and supported by experimental data, there are no bench test data on the amount of dry ice sublimated during the decomposition. The author confirmed that his work in this field is only theoretical and that further research is needed.
As mentioned in [34], especially in precision cleaning applications, the CO2 purity can have an influence on the process quality. The initial investigation of the impurities source and their role in dry-ice blasting was carried out by several researchers and presented in [35,36,37]. According to the results shown in [38], one of types of the impurities is heavy hydrocarbons. Their source was identified as lubricants used in the purification process. As reported in [35], polymeric residues were noticed on the surface after CO2 snow cleaning. Their presence was explained by the entrainment of feeding hose material. Various carbon dioxide sources were compared in [39], aiming to indicate the carbon dioxide source providing the highest purity. The best results were reported for supercritical CO2 grades. Because the liquid carbon dioxide is characterised by excellent solvent properties, liquid-fed systems are more prone to contamination than an analogous gas-fed system is. To provide the high-purity medium, specialised catalysts [36] and in-line sieves [37] can be used.

3.2. Dry-Ice Blasting

In the most common dry-ice-blasting systems, the first step is air compression and drying. Dry ice in the form of pellets is then loaded into a shredder, where it is mixed with the air. The final step is the nozzle, in which the mixture reaches the desired velocity and goes straight onto the polluted surface. Dry ice can be produced in a separate system [23,40] or on site [25]. In such a case from liquid CO2, dry-ice pellets are created in the blasting system. Then, compressed air takes solid particles through the hose and nozzle to finally deliver the high-speed blasting medium to the polluted surface [41] (Figure 5).
After manufacturing, the carbon dioxide pellets can be transported to the dry-ice-blasting application area. Before being added to the main air stream in the dry-ice-blasting system, pellets are usually crushed. If pellets of smaller dimensions are required, they are run through a strainer.

3.2.1. Nozzles’ Types and Systems

A key component of the dry-ice-blasting system is the nozzle. Its geometry has a significant influence on the two-phase flow outlet parameters and, consequently, on the cleaning speed. There are numerous nozzle designs available in the market, depending on the dry-ice-feeding system used and the desired application. In this section, a brief overview on the commonly used dry-ice-blasting nozzles is presented.
Depending on the application, numerous nozzles have been designed, built, and operated. They can be divided into groups by various parameters. First, categorisation can be made on the basis of the system type: single-hose and two-hose nozzles are present in the market. Single-hose technology was introduced by Cold Jet in 1986 [42]. In this system, there is only one hose connecting the feeder with the nozzle. Dry ice is provided to the feeding device in which it is mixed with air flow. Dry-ice particles are sped up along the entire hose length, so their speed is comparable with the gas velocity, and their kinetic energy at the nozzle outlet is significant, which results in more-aggressive cleaning. This kind of solution allows longer hose application in comparison with two-hose systems. Single-hose solutions are used for removing difficult or bonded pollutions. What is more, in this system, the feeder can be located at a lower level than the nozzle, so the system is suitable for high walls or hard-to-reach places. An example of the one-hose system is presented in Figure 6.
Two-hose blasting systems provide air and dry ice to the nozzle through two separate hoses. Mixing is realised in the nozzle; air flow passing in the nozzle creates suction in the second hose, pulling dry-ice particles from the feeder to the nozzle. The feeder is a tank of dry-ice pellets with a screw feeder, providing a certain amount of blasting media to the hose. Because the mixing with the high-speed fluid is realised in the nozzle area, particles have less time to increase their velocity, which leads to lower kinetic energy at the nozzle outlet. To obtain the desired cleaning parameters, the Venturi effect was used to accelerate the blasting medium. For that purpose, the nozzle channel can be shaped in a convergent-divergent way. Despite this fact, two-hose systems are characterised by the lower kinetic energies of the cleaning mixtures and offer less-aggressive cleaning parameters. Moreover, the two-hose system has its limitations:
  • Hose length is limited by suction capability, so blasting can be realised only close to the cleaning machine.
  • System is not easily applicable for vertical realisations as the suction would have to overcome the gravity forces.
  • The allowable diameter of two-hose nozzle is limited by the lower efficiency and impact velocity created by pulling particles into the nozzle by suction.
Examples of the two-hose system and nozzle are presented in Figure 7.
Then nozzles can be divided by the channel shape. Examples of them are presented in Figure 8. As the manufacturers of the blasting systems scarcely provide inner canal dimensions, only an outside view of the nozzles is presented. Despite that, it should be mentioned that a wide range of shapes is available in the market, depending on the desired cleaning parameters.
First, there are so-called guns (Figure 8A): relatively small, usually circular, more rarely squared, convergent or straight (cylindrical) nozzles dedicated to removing difficult dirt. Their inner diameter usually takes values from 20 mm to 50 mm [43,44] but also smaller diameters are used in so-called microcleaning applications. Greater diameters are also present in the market and used in industrial cleaning.
For very difficult pollution removal, the supersonic circular nozzles can be applied. Their outlet diameters vary from a few millimetres up to usually 2 cm [45,46]. The internal channel shape is convergent-divergent to provide supersonic speeds at the outlet. These types of nozzles are claimed to be the most aggressive thanks to the high kinetic energy of the cleaning mixture. An example of such a nozzle is presented in the Figure 8B. The convergent-divergent nozzles can have various lengths. Longer ones are used for cleaning rarely available areas but also in cases where highly aggressive cleaning is demanded, as their canal shape allows for obtaining very high flow speeds. Their shape in the divergent part can be rectangular or flat.
Another group of nozzles are flat ones (Figure 8C). They are the most commonly used in surface cleaning. They are mainly used for light soil cleaning, in cases where pollution is not strongly bonded to the surface. There are numerous producers of flat nozzles in the market. Flat nozzles can be straight, divergent, or convergent-divergent—in some cases with more than one throat. The usage of such nozzles provides satisfying results with reasonable material consumption and cleaning time.
Each nozzle type can be designed for cleaning places with difficult accessibility by bending the nozzle channel. For that purpose, various nozzles’ angles are used. An example of such a nozzle is presented in the Figure 8D.
The nozzle shape and operating parameters, mainly inlet pressure, determine the flow structure in the nozzle and, as an effect, the outflow properties. Usually, it is difficult to directly observe the flow behaviour in the nozzle, owing to high velocities, although some attempts with high-speed cameras have been made [31]. Flow can be mathematically predicted, with canal dimensions and initial conditions. In the case of convergent-divergent nozzles, supersonic flow may occur if inlet air pressure is sufficient. The flow structure for such a case can be found in fluid mechanics handbooks, i.e., [47]. Nowadays, CFD modelling is a useful tool for nozzle-shape assessment. A well-validated model let us obtain detailed information on the flow in the nozzle, as well as about outflow parameters, which are crucial from a cleaning-feature point of view. Example models of the flow via the dry-ice-blasting nozzle are described in [31,43,44]. For the two example nozzles from [44], the maximum value of the Mach number varies from 1.5 to 2, and the outflow speed may exceed 100 m/s.

3.2.2. Parameters

The flow parameters were highly dependent on air pressure, dry-ice mass flow rate, and nozzle-surface distance. There are several examples in the literature of such systems. In [9], the presented dry-ice-blasting set was supplied by 1–5 bar of air and used 30–150 kg/h of dry ice. The tested cleaning distance was 100–600 mm. The system with a similar air pressure and dry-ice feed was described in [9] (5 bar, 30–150 kg/h). The cleaning distance was the same as in the previous case; the optimum value was found as 300 mm. Higher air pressures were reported in [48] (6.9–24.1 bar). A system with a supersonic nozzle, consuming 40 kg/h of dry ice and supplied by air at the pressure at the level of 7–7.5 bar, was shown in [49]. A two-hose set with convergent-divergent nozzle was presented in [50]. The typical air pressure in this case is 1–10.3 bar, but it can be operated in a wider range (0.7–24.1 bar). Another cleaning set, with a convergent nozzle, was in [51]. It can be supplied by air or other neutral gases at the pressure up to 7.6 bar. The highest-found air pressure was reported in [41] and equalled to 55 bar. Dry-ice mass flow in this case may vary form 5.04 up to 17.60 kg/h. In that study, the cleaning angle equalled to 45°, while the nozzle’s outlet surface distance was 20 mm (in axial direction).
In the literature, dry ice-blasting cleaning that is supported by other technologies can be met. A laser-assisted dry-ice-blasting system was presented in [52]. It can realise the process from 10 up to 220 mm, with a cleaning angle of 78°–90°. The dry-ice mass flow equalled to 60 kg/h and was supported by pressurised air (4–12 bar). The system of dry-ice blasting with chemical additives was described in [53]. In this case, the dry-ice mass flow rate was up to 100 kg/h and air pressure equalled to 5.5 bar.
There are also commercial dry-ice-blasting systems available in the market. The main examples of them with their operating parameters are described below:
  • Norton, air pressure: 3.4–17.2, dry-ice mass flow rate: 0–193 kg/h, available nozzles: convergent-divergent, convergent, simple [54].
  • DISs (dry-ice systems), supply pressure: 0–16 bar, dry-ice supply: 0–75/90 kg/h (depending on type). DIS offers both one-hose and two-hose systems, which can be operated with convergent-divergent, divergent (flat), or round nozzles, with various folds: straight, 90°, 45° [55].
  • Esnadee CAB Series offers two-hose systems supplied by air (1–16 bar) and dry-ice pellets (20–105 kg/h). It can be operated with divergent (flat), convergent, or round nozzles, whose curve can be straight, 90°, or 45° [56].
  • Linde Cryoclean is a two-hose system operated with 2–16 bar of air with convergent-divergent nozzles [8].
  • Red-D-Arc Welderentals, an air-gas company, offers systems with a very wide spectrum of nozzles: convergent-divergent, divergent (flat) simple at 45°, 90°, or 135°; round simple at 45°, 90°, or 135°, which are supplied by air of 5.5/6.9 bar (depending on the type); and dry ice at 30–162 kg/h [57].
  • White Lion Dry Ice & Laser Cleaning Technology developed systems fed by 0.5–16 bar of air (depending on type) and supplied by dry-ice mass flow of 0–250 kg/h (depending on the type), which can cooperate with dedicated divergent flat (various sizes) and round simple (various sizes) nozzles [58].
  • Ice Tech, powered by Cold Jet, offers both single- and two-hose systems, working with divergent flat, convergent-divergent (various sizes) nozzles; the air pressure equals to −12 bars and a dry-ice mass flow rate of 30–100 kg/h [59].

3.3. Snow Blasting

Another system using dry ice as a blasting medium is snow blasting. In this case, solid carbon dioxide is generated in the cleaning system by pressurised gas or liquid throttling. Thanks to the Joule–Thompson effect [60], during the expansion, the medium partially solidifies and/or liquefies. Snow-blasting-system schemes are presented in Figure 9 and Figure 10. In this system, no auxiliary air is demanded, although in some systems, compressed air support can be met [61].
In snow-blasting systems, two types of nozzles can be used: adiabatic ones or nonadiabatic ones. The first of them requires a liquid or gas feed, while nonadiabatic nozzles should be supplied with liquid carbon dioxide [34]. In the nozzle, the mixture speeds up and can then be directed to the polluted surface. The solid particle diameters in the outflow can reach up to 500 μm [26]. The detailed parameters of the outflow depend on the operating conditions and the nozzle’s shape.
An example snow blasting system was presented in [25]. The gas pressure in the tank equalled to 60 bar, and the carbon dioxide mass flow rate can vary form 0 up to 21.6 kg/h. The analysed case covered a cleaning process from a 20 mm distance and at a cleaning angle of 45°. The used nozzle was a 50 mm ABS tube. Another example was shown in [15]. This system used an Airco nozzle, model no. 050-01581, with a 0.3 mm orifice. The cleaning distance in this case was in the range of 25 to 50 mm. The cleaning process scheme for snow blasting is shown in the Figure 11.

4. Actual Scope of Application

Dry-ice blasting is an industrial cleaning method with numerous advantages, such as non-moisture operating conditions [53], a low amount of waste generated, adjustable operating conditions for blasting medium mass flow and air pressure changes, safety, and low cost [9], allowing for obtaining high surface purity in a short time. What is more, no chemicals are used—only air and nontoxic and nonreactive CO2. In numerous cases, dry-ice blasting will be more economically viable in comparison to others methods. Dry-ice blasting can easily be used even in complicated shapes for cleaning in complicated locations. Process applications do not require drying as a second step. These advantages contribute to a very wide scope of dry-ice blasting applications. Main examples of them, with system features determining the choice for the described case, are presented in the Table 1.
Although the discussed technology has numerous advantages, its drawbacks should be mentioned. First, the improper adjustment of blasting parameters leads to surface-damage risk or may cause a polishing effect, so the initial structure of the surface must be changed [64]. When dry-ice pellets are manufactured in separate installations, they should be used in a short time (preferably within 24 h) owing to sublimation and air-water solidification, which may change the structure and properties of pellets. In some applications, competitive methods may be more economically viable. The blasting system requires a higher investment cost in comparison to some other cleaning methods. What is more, during the dry-ice blasting, the surface temperature decreases, which may also be a limitation of the method [73]. Among the other restrictions is the need for proper ventilation for the working environment, because the critical concentration of carbon dioxide in the air cannot be exceeded [18].

Author Contributions

A.D. provided literature studies and paper writing and editing. P.K. was responsible for the conceptualisation and proofreading. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research was partially funded by the National Centre for Research and Development (Poland) and by the 3N Solutions company in the framework of the Smart Growth Operational Programme, grant number POIR.01.02.00-00-0209/16.

Informed Consent Statement

Non applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Number of documents published yearly on dry-ice blasting, via Scopus.
Figure 1. Number of documents published yearly on dry-ice blasting, via Scopus.
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Figure 2. Pollution-removing mechanism: step I—cooling, step II—crushing, step III—sublimation and pollution transport with the gas flow (Adapted with permission from Ref. [13], 2021, Energy).
Figure 2. Pollution-removing mechanism: step I—cooling, step II—crushing, step III—sublimation and pollution transport with the gas flow (Adapted with permission from Ref. [13], 2021, Energy).
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Figure 3. Dry-ice pellets.
Figure 3. Dry-ice pellets.
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Figure 4. Major and minor breakup of dry-ice particles as a function of impact velocity and primary particle diameter (Adapted with permission from Ref [31]—Open Access, 2018, Technological University Dublin).
Figure 4. Major and minor breakup of dry-ice particles as a function of impact velocity and primary particle diameter (Adapted with permission from Ref [31]—Open Access, 2018, Technological University Dublin).
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Figure 5. Scheme of a dry-ice-blasting system.
Figure 5. Scheme of a dry-ice-blasting system.
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Figure 6. Scheme of a single-hose system.
Figure 6. Scheme of a single-hose system.
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Figure 7. Scheme of a two-hose system.
Figure 7. Scheme of a two-hose system.
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Figure 8. Various nozzles’ canal shapes. (A) Convergent circular nozzle, (B) supersonic circular nozzle, (C) convergent-divergent flat nozzle, (D) flat, curved nozzle.
Figure 8. Various nozzles’ canal shapes. (A) Convergent circular nozzle, (B) supersonic circular nozzle, (C) convergent-divergent flat nozzle, (D) flat, curved nozzle.
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Figure 9. Scheme of a snow-blasting system, gaseous CO2 supply.
Figure 9. Scheme of a snow-blasting system, gaseous CO2 supply.
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Figure 10. Sceheme of a snow-blasting system, liquid CO2 supply.
Figure 10. Sceheme of a snow-blasting system, liquid CO2 supply.
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Figure 11. Scheme of a snow-blasting cleaning (Adapted with permission from Ref. [62], 1990, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A Vacuum, Surfaces, Film.).
Figure 11. Scheme of a snow-blasting cleaning (Adapted with permission from Ref. [62], 1990, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A Vacuum, Surfaces, Film.).
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Table
Table 1. Dry-ice blasting applications.
Table 1. Dry-ice blasting applications.
ApplicationDry-Ice Blasting Features, Allowing for Application
Electrical devices cleaning [63]Nonmoisture operating conditions, cleaning precision, high purity, adjustability to avoid surface damage, fast cleaning
Food industry (cleaning of technological lines) [10]Nontoxic blasting material, high purity, fast cleaning,  no residuals
Aircraft (i.e., engines cleaning), power generation devices (i.e., heat exchangers), railway [64,65]No residuals, ability to reach and clean surfaces of  complicated shapes, nonmoisture operating conditions
Surface pretreatment (aluminium bonding joints [66], aluminium oxide coatings [67] titanium coatings [68], automotive painting [69])Short cleaning time, high purity, nonmoisture operating  conditions (also in terms of water saving), process can be fully automated, no drying needed, can be economically viable
Science (i.e., high-precision cleaning [70] of optical surfaces, including in-orbit applications)High purity, cleaning conditions adjustment to obtain the effect with low risk of surface damage, nontoxic, no chemicals (which could stay on the surface after cleaning), nonmoisture operational conditions, low temperature
Metal surface conservation [64]Ease of use, no waste generated, low cost, sustainability, health and safety, accessibility, no chemicals required, high purity even in case of complicated shapes
Ionic contamination reduction [65]Ideal cleaning effect without decreasing the solderability of  different surface finishes
Heavy oil and organic pollution removal [71]Mainly carbon dioxide chemical properties (which makes it prone to remove organic components), high purity, no waste, nonmoisture operation, low temperatures, ability to reach complicated shapes
Surface cooling during cutting [72]Low temperature, high heat flow due to the phase change,  no residuals
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Dzido, A.; Krawczyk, P. Abrasive Technologies with Dry Ice as a Blasting Medium—Review. Energies 2023, 16, 1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031014

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Dzido A, Krawczyk P. Abrasive Technologies with Dry Ice as a Blasting Medium—Review. Energies. 2023; 16(3):1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031014

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Dzido, Aleksandra, and Piotr Krawczyk. 2023. "Abrasive Technologies with Dry Ice as a Blasting Medium—Review" Energies 16, no. 3: 1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031014

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