Analysis of the Temperature Reached by the Traction Battery of an Electric Vehicle during the Drying Phase in the Paint Booth
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- BMW i3
- 2.
- Nissan
- -
- Measure the temperature with a non-contact thermometer.
- -
- If there is a cover (resin) over the footboard, it must be removed to measure the temperature.
- 3.
- TESLA
- -
- Maximum drying time: 45 min;
- -
- Maximum firing temperature: 74 °C.
- 4.
- TOYOTA
- 5.
- HONDA
- 6.
- AUDI
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Vehicle Used in the Tests
- -
- Control of the start and stop of the high-voltage system is carried out on request via the Electrical Machine Electronics (EMEs).
- -
- Evaluation of the voltage and temperature measurement signals of all battery cells and the current level in the high-voltage circuit.
- -
- Monitoring of the cooling system of the high-voltage battery unit.
- -
- Determination of the SoC and SoH of the high-voltage battery.
- -
- Determination of the available power of the high voltage battery.
- -
- Safety functions (e.g., voltage and temperature monitoring, high voltage interlock loop monitoring, and high voltage system monitoring for insulation faults).
- -
- Measuring and monitoring the voltage of each individual cell in the battery.
- -
- Measuring and monitoring the temperature at various points in the cell block.
- -
- Communicating the measured variables to the SME.
- -
- Performing the voltage adjustment process on the battery cells.
- -
- Control of the switching contactors for switching the high-voltage system on and off.
- -
- Monitoring of the high-voltage system for insulation faults.
- -
- Control of the cooling and heating of the high-voltage battery.
- -
- Balancing of individual battery cells (balancing).
- -
- High-voltage electrical system check (pre-charge): this involves verifying the operation of the high-voltage electrical system, including closing the pilot line circuit.
- -
- Voltage increase: Capacitors are present, causing a potential for high switching currents that could lead to damage to both capacitors and switching contactors over time. Therefore, voltage is increased gradually to mitigate this risk.
- -
- Closing the contacts of the switching contactor: When disconnecting the high-voltage system, a distinction is made between regular disconnection and fast disconnection. During regular disconnection, the protection of the electrical components and the testing of the high-voltage system is stopped. For example, the contacts of the contactor of the electromechanical switch must only be opened once the current level has fallen to a value close to 0 A, otherwise, they are subject to a high voltage.The BMW i3 vehicle tested features a central control station (Cell Supervision Circuits, CSCs) as seen in Figure 2, overseeing each of the eight modules. The CSC analyzes measurements from temperature sensors (four per module) and monitors the voltages of individual cells. Apart from data collection, the CSC’s primary role involves periodic cell rebalancing using its integrated shunt resistor. This process is essential because battery cells can become slightly unbalanced during use, with some cells reaching lower states of charge and associated open-circuit voltages compared to others. Without rebalancing, relying solely on module voltage to determine charge and discharge limits can result in issues. For instance, during charging, a high state-of-charge (SoC) cell might be overcharged while other cells lag behind in voltage. Conversely, during discharge, a low SoC cell might reach a lower voltage than intended. Overcharging and over-discharging can damage cells, leading to safety concerns or reduced cycle life. Therefore, cell balancing plays a crucial role in maintaining optimal battery function and longevity.
2.2. Paint Booth Used in the Tests
- -
- After setting the heating timer to 40 min, the ventilation timer should be set to 50 min to ensure adequate cooling.
- -
- To initiate the drying phase, both the heating and ventilation timers should be activated simultaneously by pressing the switches located at the centre of each timer.
- -
- Then, the drying phase starts.
- -
- Floor plan: Inner dimensions: length 7080 mm, width 4280 mmExternal dimensions: length 7320 mm, width 4520 mm
- -
- Plenum height (upper ceiling where heat is distributed). External dimensions: length 7420 mm, width 4520 mm.
- -
- Height: Inside 3080 mmOutside 3630 mm
- -
- As for the enclosure of the cabin, the walls are made of 20/11 mm glass and the floor has 40 × 2 mm gratings in 2 shafts.
- -
- The generator group (heating booster) is made up of two 5.5 kW three-phase asynchronous electric motors and two fans, with a total airflow of 24,000 m3/h. On the other hand, the extractor group (expulsion scrubber), is made up of two three-phase 5.5 kW electric motors, with a suction airflow of 22,500 m3/h.
2.3. Equipment Used for Temperature Measurement
- -
- Keysight 970A Datalogger (see Figure 7) measures, records, and stores data, together with a 20-channel acquisition module. This data logger can also read/store electrical variables by changing the type of recording module.
- -
- Includes visualization and recording software: BenchVue. 2020 Update 2.0.
- -
- Panel for 12 T-type mini-thermocouples.
2.4. Characterisation of the Tests Carried Out
- -
- During charging: analyzing the impact of charging speed based on power and charger specifications and assessing how the state of charge influences temperature.
- -
- In different driving situations and vehicle stresses.
- -
- When the electric vehicle is parked outside during the summer, exposed to elevated ambient temperatures.
- -
- BMW diagnostic equipment, which is connected to the vehicle’s OBD (Onboard Diagnostics). With this device, individual temperatures, and voltages of individual modules, can be measured, i.e., eight temperature measurements can be obtained.
- -
- Multibrand TEXA diagnostic equipment, which connects to the vehicle’s OBD. With this diagnostic equipment we can obtain, in the case of the BMW i3 tested, an average battery temperature value (see Figure 10), even though the battery, as we have seen in the analysis of its specifications and components, has a CSC for each of the eight modules.
- -
- Temperature-measuring equipment, using T-type thermocouples.
3. Results
3.1. Temperature Measurement Using BMW Diagnostic Equipment
3.1.1. Battery 50% SoC
3.1.2. Battery 100% SoC
- -
- Across all states of charge (SoCs) of the battery, Modules 1 and 8 consistently reach the highest temperatures, followed closely by Module 5.
- -
- Regardless of the SoC, the temperature measured at the right side footboard in the rear area (T4) is consistently higher than that in the lower part. This difference is likely due to the presence of a cooling plate located between the measurement point and the lower section of the high-voltage traction battery.
- -
- The temperature trends in the traction battery modules remain consistent irrespective of the battery’s SoC. Modules 1 and 8 consistently exhibit the highest temperatures.
- -
- Modules generally reach higher temperature values when the battery is at 100% SoC. Specifically, the temperature increase from 50% SoC to 100% SoC is most pronounced in Test 1, with subsequent tests showing reduced temperature differences. Test 4, in particular, shows lower temperature increases compared to Test 1, likely due to the operation of the cooling system during tests 3 and 4 at 50% SoC.
- -
- It is important to note that the compressor has a temperature limit: above 35 °C, it will not operate due to safety precautions aimed at preventing cell temperatures from exceeding 32 °C. This limitation ensures safe operation even when the vehicle is subjected to conditions such as those in a paint booth.
3.2. Temperature Measurement Using TEXA Multi-Brand Diagnostic Equipment
3.2.1. Placement of Thermocouples in Traction Battery
3.2.2. Battery SoC 50%
3.2.3. Battery SoC 100%
- -
- Irrespective of the battery SoC, Modules 1 and 8 consistently reach the highest temperatures, followed by Module 5.
- -
- On the other hand, regardless of the SoC of the battery, a higher temperature is always reached at the right-side footboard in the front area (T3) than at the bottom, which may be due to the existence of a cooling plate at the bottom. This difference may be due to the presence of a cooling plate at the bottom, which is positioned between the measuring point and the underside of the high-voltage traction battery.
- -
- Regarding the temperature reached in the traction battery modules, the trend is the same regardless of the SoC of the battery, i.e., the modules that reach the highest temperature are Module 8 and Module 1.
- -
- It is concluded that the modules reach higher temperature values when the battery has an SoC of 100%. The temperature increases at 100% SoC compared to 50% SoC is higher in Test 3 and lower in Test 4. These tests are not influenced by the cooling system because it does not come into operation until the end of Test 4.
- -
- The temperatures measured with the TEXA equipment are generally slightly higher than those measured with the thermocouples placed on the battery modules.
- -
- In the case of the thermocouple measurements, a linear difference of these measurements is observed across different battery SoCs, whereas, with the TEXA measurements, the difference is not linear.
- -
- The warm-up time is not considered because in each test it is stopped when the compressor starts running and begins to cool down, and what is being measured is the temperature reached at different points to check whether the maximum safety thresholds are exceeded.
- -
- For both measurement methods (TEXA and thermocouples) the difference between the Tmax, Tmin, and Tmean values for different SoC values is highest for Test 3 and lowest for Test 4.
- -
- In the case of the battery at 100% state of charge, the temperatures measured in each module using BMW diagnostic equipment are higher compared to those measured with thermocouples. Both sets of measurements exhibit a consistent trend: Module 8 consistently reaches the highest temperature, followed by Module 1 and Module 5 (in tests 2, 3, and 4). However, this trend was not observed in Test 1, because the spray booth had not yet reached 60 °C during that test.
- -
- Another conclusion drawn from the measurements with the thermocouples is that, for the two battery SoCs analysed, there is a more uniform and progressive distribution of the measurements across different tests. In contrast, measurements with BMW diagnostic equipment show a less uniform distribution. Specifically, data from test number 3 and test number 4 are very close for the two battery-charging SoCs analysed.
- -
- In the case of the measurement conducted using BMW diagnostic equipment, the observed temperature differences for each battery state of charge during the tests were significantly larger compared to the temperature differences measured using thermocouples placed on each of the traction battery modules.
4. Conclusions
4.1. Quantitative and Qualitative Conclusions
4.2. Future Research Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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High Voltage Battery Unit 60 Ah 2013 | |
---|---|
Number of lithium-ion ells in the battery | 96 (in series) |
Number of cell modules (each with 12 cells) | 8 |
Nominal voltage | 360 V |
Voltage at 100% state of charge | 395 V |
Voltage at 0% state of charge | 259 V |
Capacity | 60 Ah |
Energy (Nominal value) | 21.6 kWh |
Energy (usable) | 18.8 kWh |
Dimensions of battery housing (length × width × high) | 1660 mm × 964 mm × 174 mm |
Weight | ~233 kg |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tpaint booth Set | Timedriying Set | Tpaint booth Measured | Humiditypaint booth Measured |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 60 °C | 60 min (in the first) | 56 °C | 12.5%rh |
2 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 60 °C | 60 min | 57.5 °C | 10.0%rh |
3 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 80 °C | 60 min | 64.5 °C | 8.0%rh |
4 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected ** | 80 °C | 35 min | 64.5 °C | 7.5%rh |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | T1 Measured Bodywork | T2 Measured Bodywork | T3 Measured Bodywork | T4 Measured Bodywork |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 22.9 °C | 19.2 °C | 32.0 °C | 34.1 °C |
2 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 25.4 °C | 23.8 °C | 37.9 °C | 38.7 °C |
3 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 39.5 °C | 47.3 °C | 55.1 °C | 55.4 °C |
4 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected ** | 40.1 °C | 50.2 °C | 62.6 °C | 61.7 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tmodule 1 BMW | Tmodule 2 BMW | Tmodule 3 BMW | Tmodule 4 BMW | Tmodule 5 BMW | Tmodule 6 BMW | Tmodule 7 BMW | Tmodule 8 BMW |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 16.5 °C | 14.5 °C | 14.0 °C | 14.0 °C | 14.5 °C | 14.5 °C | 14.5 °C | 16.0 °C |
2 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 22.0 °C | 19.0 °C | 18.0 °C | 19.0 °C | 19.0 °C | 18.5 °C | 18.5 °C | 21.0 °C |
3 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected * | 28.5 °C | 24.5 °C | 24.0 °C | 24.5 °C | 26.0 °C | 24.5 °C | 25.0 °C | 28.5 °C |
4 | 50% | Connected | Disconnected ** | 30.0 °C | 25.5 °C | 25.0 °C | 26.0 °C | 27.0 °C | 25.5 °C | 26.5 °C | 30.0 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tpaint booth Set | Timedriying Set | Tpaint booth Measured | Humiditypaint booth Measured |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 60 °C | 60 min (in the first) | 56 °C | 10.5%rh |
2 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 60 °C | 60 min | 58.5 °C | 9.0%rh |
3 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 80 °C | 43 min | 65.0 °C | 7.5%rh |
4 | 100% | Connected | Connected ** | 80 °C | 10 min | 67.0 °C | 7.5%rh |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | T1 Measured Bodywork | T2 Measured Bodywork | T3 Measured Bodywork | T4 Measured Bodywork |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 32.9 °C | 32.5 °C | 39.0 °C | 40.6 °C |
2 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 34.5 °C | 39.1 °C | 46.3 °C | 46.3 °C |
3 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 42.1 °C | 57.8 °C | 63.5 °C | 62.7 °C |
4 | 100% | Connected | Connected ** | 49.9 °C | 57.5 °C | 65.2 °C | 66.7 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tmodule 1 BMW | Tmodule 2 BMW | Tmodule 3 BMW | Tmodule 4 BMW | Tmodule 5 BMW | Tmodule 6 BMW | Tmodule 7 BMW | Tmodule 8 BMW |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 25.0 °C | 22.5 °C | 21.5 °C | 22.5 °C | 23.0 °C | 22.0 °C | 22.0 °C | 24.5 °C |
2 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 30.5 °C | 27.0 °C | 26.5 °C | 27.0 °C | 28.0 °C | 26.5 °C | 26.5 °C | 30.0 °C |
3 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 35.0 °C | 31.5 °C | 31.0 °C | 32.0 °C | 33.0 °C | 31.5 °C | 32.0 °C | 35.5 °C |
4 | 100% | Connected | Connected ** | 36.0 °C | 32.5 °C | 32.0 °C | 33.0 °C | 34.5 °C | 32.5 °C | 33.0 °C | 36.5 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tpaint booth Set | Timedriying Set | Tpaint booth Measured | Humiditypaint booth Measured |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 60 °C | 60 min (in the first) | 50.5 °C | 10.0%rh |
2 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 60 °C | 60 min | 58.0 °C | 7.0%rh |
3 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 80 °C | 60 min | 60.0 °C | 7.0%rh |
4 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 80 °C | 60 min | 61.5 °C | 7.5%rh |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | T1 Measured Bodywork | T2 Measured Bodywork | T3 Measured Bodywork | T4 Measured Bodywork | Tcompressor |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 22.6 °C | 24.4 °C | 32.2 °C | 31.6 °C | 30.9 °C |
2 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 26.0 °C | 28.9 °C | 39.0 °C | 37.2 °C | 39.1 °C |
3 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 31.2 °C | 38.9 °C | 47.4 °C | 45.4 °C | 49.7 °C |
4 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 41.3 °C | 50.8 °C | 54.1 °C | 50.7 °C | 56.8 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tmean | Tmax | Tmin |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 16.68 °C | 18.99 °C | 16.0 °C |
2 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 20.82 °C | 24.03 °C | 19.04 °C |
3 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 25.18 °C | 28.00 °C | 23.00 °C |
4 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 30.54 °C | 34.04 °C | 27.04 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tmodule 1 thermocouple | Tmodule 2 thermocouple | Tmodule 3 thermocouple | Tmodule 4 thermocouple | Tmodule 5 thermocouple | Tmodule 6 thermocouple | Tmodule 7 thermocouple | Tmodule 8 thermocouple | Tcompressor |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 16.9 °C | 15.9 °C | 15.8 °C | 16.0 °C | 16.3 °C | 15.9 °C | 15.9 °C | 17.0 °C | 31.7 °C |
2 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 21.3 °C | 19.2 °C | 19.0 °C | 19.8 °C | 20.6 °C | 19.3 °C | 19.4 °C | 21.5 °C | 42.4 °C |
3 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 25.9 °C | 23.0 °C | 22.7 °C | 24.0 °C | 25.1 °C | 23.3 °C | 23.4 °C | 26.3 °C | 49.8 °C |
4 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 31.2 °C | 27.8 °C | 27.4 °C | 28.8 °C | 30.5 °C | 28.3 °C | 28.4 °C | 32.0 °C | 56.9 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | TEXA | Termocouple | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tmean | Tmax | Tmin | Tmean | Tmax | Tmin | ||||
1 (reference) | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 16.68 °C | 18.99 °C | 16.0 °C | 16.2 °C | 17.0 °C | 15.8 °C |
2 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 20.82 °C | 24.03 °C | 19.04 °C | 20.0 °C | 21.5 °C | 19.0 °C |
3 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 25.18 °C | 28.00 °C | 23.00 °C | 24.2 °C | 26.3 °C | 22.7 °C |
4 | 50% | Connected | Connected * | 30.54 °C | 34.04 °C | 27.04 °C | 29.3 °C | 32.0 °C | 27.4 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tpaint booth Set | Timedriying Set | Tpaint booth Measured | Humiditypaint booth Measured |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 60 °C | 60 min (in the first) | 55.0 °C | 8.5%rh |
2 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 60 °C | 60 min | 62.0 °C | 6.0%rh |
3 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 80 °C | 60 min | 62.5 °C | 6.0%rh |
4 | 100% | Connected | Connected ** | 80 °C | 33 min | 63.0 °C | 6.0%rh |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | T1 Measured Bodywork | T2 Measured Bodywork | T3 Measured Bodywork | T4 Measured Bodywork | Tcompressor |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 29.5 °C | 28.0 °C | 33.9 °C | 34.3 °C | 32.7 °C |
2 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 31.2 °C | 32.7 °C | 44.3 °C | 41.8 °C | 44.5 °C |
3 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 42.5 °C | 49.5 °C | 55.1 °C | 51.7 °C | 58.2 °C |
4 | 100% | Connected | Connected ** | 45.2 °C | 55.0 °C | 62.7 °C | 59.8 °C | 61.1 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tmean | Tmax | Tmin |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 18.67 °C | 20.02 °C | 18.02 °C |
2 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 22.93 °C | 26.01 °C | 22.01 °C |
3 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 28.87 °C | 32.00 °C | 26.00 °C |
4 | 100% | Connected | Connected ** | 32.24 °C | 36.01 °C | 29.01 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | Tmodule 1 thermocouple | Tmodule 2 thermocouple | Tmodule 3 thermocouple | Tmodule 4 thermocouple | Tmodule 5 thermocouple | Tmodule 6 thermocouple | Tmodule 7 thermocouple | Tmodule 8 thermocouple | Tcompressor |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (reference) | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 19.0 °C | 17.9 °C | 17.7 °C | 17.7 °C | 17.9 °C | 17.7 °C | 17.9 °C | 19.2 °C | 33.8 °C |
2 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 23.4 °C | 21.3 °C | 21.0 °C | 21.7 °C | 22.5 °C | 21.4 °C | 21.6 °C | 23.8 °C | 45.9 °C |
3 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 29.2 °C | 26.2 °C | 25.7 °C | 26.8 °C | 28.3 °C | 26.5 °C | 26.7 °C | 30.2 °C | 56.6 °C |
4 | 100% | Connected | Connected ** | 32.9 °C | 29.5 °C | 28.9 °C | 30.1 °C | 31.9 °C | 29.9 °C | 30.2 °C | 33.9 °C | 60.6 °C |
Test Number | SoC | Vehicle | Cooling | TEXA | Termocouple | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tmean | Tmax | Tmin | Tmean | Tmax | Tmin | ||||
1 (reference) | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 18.68 °C | 20.02 °C | 18.02 °C | 18.1 °C | 19.2 °C | 17.7 °C |
2 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 22.93 °C | 26.01 °C | 22.01 °C | 22.1 °C | 23.8 °C | 21.0 °C |
3 | 100% | Connected | Connected * | 28.87 °C | 32.00 °C | 26.00 °C | 27.5 °C | 30.2 °C | 25.7 °C |
4 | 100% | Connected | Connected ** | 32.24 °C | 36.01 °C | 29.01 °C | 30.9 °C | 33.9 °C | 28.9 °C |
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Olona, A.; Castejón, L. Analysis of the Temperature Reached by the Traction Battery of an Electric Vehicle during the Drying Phase in the Paint Booth. Energies 2024, 17, 3437. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143437
Olona A, Castejón L. Analysis of the Temperature Reached by the Traction Battery of an Electric Vehicle during the Drying Phase in the Paint Booth. Energies. 2024; 17(14):3437. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143437
Chicago/Turabian StyleOlona, Ana, and Luis Castejón. 2024. "Analysis of the Temperature Reached by the Traction Battery of an Electric Vehicle during the Drying Phase in the Paint Booth" Energies 17, no. 14: 3437. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143437