Autarky and the Promotion of Photovoltaics for Sustainable Energy Development: Prosumer Attitudes and Choices

Abstract

The behavior and reactions of prosumers play a key role in the development of sustainable energy and green transformation, as it is the result of their individual decisions that determines the scope of use of renewable energy sources. For these reasons, the main goal of this article is to determine whether and to what extent autarky influenced prosumers’ decisions about the use of solar energy in households, and which promotional channels play the most important role in these decisions. An assessment of the role of autarky and promotion from the prosumer perspective on the photovoltaics market is carried out on the example of Poland as a developing economy, based on the dominant share of coal in energy production. The implementation of this goal will enable recognition and better understanding of prosumers’ intentions and attitudes, and thus more effective stimulation of the green transformation. Surveys in this area were carried out on a representative sample of 754 Polish prosumers, and were analyzed using descriptive statistics and non-parametric statistical tests. The obtained results demonstrate a strong need for energy independence among prosumers (50%) and confirm the role of this motive in the green transformation process. Respondents consider the Internet (a score of 3.8793 on a 5-point suitability scale) and information from companies installing photovoltaic installations (a score of 3.6645 on a 5-point suitability scale) to be the most effective sources of promoting photovoltaics. The example and opinion of family and friends are also important to them. Government campaigns (a score of 2.8647 on a 5-point suitability scale), television and the press play a much smaller role in the popularization of solar energy. Respondents, therefore, prefer numerous and dispersed marketing sources, that allow them to confront and verify the information obtained.

1. Introduction

Currently, renewable energy sources (RES) play a key role in the development of sustainable energy [1,2,3]. A common feature of renewable energy sources is the possibility of renewing them (replenishing them in a natural way). Typically, they include wind energy, solar radiation energy, aerothermal energy, geothermal energy, hydrothermal energy, hydropower, the energy of waves, sea currents and tides, as well as energy obtained from biomass, biogas, agricultural biogas and bioliquids.

The type and scope of use of RES are undoubtedly decisive in many economic, political and geographical circumstances that determine the creation of eco-innovation-friendly infrastructure [4,5,6]. Overall, solar energy works best in countries with significant sunlight and favorable climatic conditions [7]. Nevertheless, their role in the energy industry is systematically increasing and will determine society’s quality of life in the future [8,9,10].

The use of renewable energy sources directly fits into several key sustainable development goals established by the United Nations [11,12]. It is directly related to Goal 7 on clean and safe energy [13] and Goal 12 on responsible consumption and production. It also influences the effective implementation of Goal 13, which covers climate action [14]. Additionally, the use of renewable energy sources may indirectly affect the increase in innovation highlighted under Goal 9 and contribute to the sustainable development of cities and communities included in Goal 11.

The relationships between innovation and the development of solar energy are often discussed in the literature on the subject [15]. New technologies are still being sought to facilitate the use of renewable energy sources, increase their efficiency and contribute to reducing carbon dioxide emissions [16]. Some of the most modern developments in this area are hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV-T) collectors, which are used to produce heat and electricity [17]. This line of research also describes issues related to the economic profitability of renewable energy technologies [18,19,20]. These studies are aimed at shortening the payback period and reducing operating costs, which is an important determinant of the decision to use renewable energy sources.

Renewable energy sources have also changed business models related to production and consumption [21,22,23,24,25]. In the case of solar energy, there are numerous distributed energy sources and individual prosumers, being both producers and users of the produced energy. This market model makes energy sustainability largely dependent on the will and behavior of individual households and enterprises [26,27,28,29]. This, in turn, implies the need to identify prosumer expectations aimed at adapting the above-mentioned conditions to very diverse demand and support.

Both in practice and in the literature, the social aspects of sustainable energy are considered less often than technical, legal or organizational issues. Meanwhile, incorrect or insufficient recognition of social behavior patterns may lead to disruptions and delays in sustainable energy transformation, as illustrated by examples from emerging and developing economies, where a lack of acceptance and a low level of public awareness constitute a serious obstacle to decarbonization [30,31,32,33].

Therefore, the main aim of the analyses carried out is to determine whether and to what extent autarky influenced prosumers’ decisions about the use of solar energy in households and which promotional channels played the most important role in making these decisions. Obtaining the answer to this question will allow the authors to create a hierarchy of incentives tailored to the individual—previously unrecognized—preferences of prosumers in the analyzed scope. This, in turn, will allow for more effective and precise actions to popularize the use of renewable energy sources in societies in emerging and developing economies, where traditional energy carriers are usually used, and which are reluctant to take up the challenges related to the green transformation.

The question of prosumer autarky appears very rarely in the literature on the subject. Meanwhile, it is quite an important motive to encourage the use of photovoltaics. Its importance increases in the event of external threats, such as raw material crises, armed conflicts or pandemics. Photovoltaics guarantees self-sufficiency and continuity of energy supply. It is therefore worth taking a closer look at its perception from the perspective of prosumers in the emerging photovoltaic market. The knowledge obtained in this way can be used to stimulate the desired behaviors for the development of renewable energy sources.

In the case of research on the promotion of photovoltaics, it is desirable to obtain information on the effectiveness of individual media channels. This information can be used in the process of strengthening the message and popularizing the use of low-emission energy sources. Additionally, this is of particular importance in the Polish economy, which has been using traditional energy sources for many years and has problems with decarbonization.

Research in the above scope was conducted in 2023 on a representative sample of 754 Polish prosumers. The analysis of the results used descriptive statistics tools and non-parametric statistical tests to identify the relationships between the individual characteristics of prosumers, as well as their behaviors and decisions on the energy market.

The originality of the research and considerations undertaken results from the following circumstances:

• embedding considerations and research in the social trend of sustainable energy development—most analyses regarding solar energy are technological or economic in nature;
• closing the research gap regarding previously unexplored behavioral aspects of prosumerism, i.e., the importance of autarky and the effectiveness of photovoltaics promotion;
• identifying the importance of autarky in decisions regarding installing a photovoltaic installation;
• identifying the most effective ways to promote sustainable energy;
• assessing the differences in prosumers’ attitudes towards autarky and the promotion of renewable energy sources due to the age and place of residence of prosumers, and the age of the property;
• formulating recommendations for implementing the energy transformation in emerging and developing economies.

In a later section, the article presents literature studies on the factors determining prosumer attitudes. The principles of creating a questionnaire and selecting research tools are also described. After the methodological section, the research results are presented, along with a discussion relating to previous considerations undertaken in the subject area. The article ends with a summary containing a synthesis of conclusions, research limitations and directions for further research.

2. Literature Studies

2.1. Contemporary Trends in the Analysis of Sustainable Energy

In the contemporary literature on sustainable energy, a lot of space is devoted to several key research trends, most often relating to technical and infrastructural aspects, that undoubtedly determine the use of renewable energy sources [34,35,36,37,38]. These include issues linked to the transmission and storage of energy generated from distributed sources [39,40,41,42]. This dispersion is also an inspiration for research on the efficient and effective distribution of generated energy on the market, which is a very complicated task due to difficult-to-predict demand and supply [43,44,45,46].

In addition to technical issues, researchers’ attention is absorbed by political and administrative issues related to the design and modification of energy strategies aimed at decarbonization and maximizing the use of renewable energy sources [47,48,49,50,51], in particular in emerging and developing economies that are struggling with the difficult challenges of green transformation [52,53,54]. Following this trend, researchers also often focus on analyzing the effectiveness of support instruments for renewable energy sources.

The dominance of technical and political issues pushes the individual social micro-perspective to the outskirts. This is due to two key circumstances. The first is the marginalization and sometimes even downplaying of the role of individual entities in economic changes on a macro scale. The second is the difficulty of identifying and organizing diverse and scattered motives, opinions and views. However, irrespective of the difficulty, subjectivity and complexity of the behavioral aspects of sustainable energy, the attitudes and behaviors of prosumers should be studied and analyzed, because they are an important determinant of the effectiveness of decarbonization. Additionally, as Galvin (2020) [55] emphasizes, prosumerism is a geo-sociotechnical system that cannot be studied without taking into account social relations.

With the above in mind, the following considerations present an overview of the most important research trends on this topic described in contemporary literature. This review is a starting point for formulating research intentions, and a basis for the discussion included in the final part of the article.

2.2. Motives for Using Photovoltaic Technologies from a Social Perspective

Many contemporary studies and analyses show [56,57] that the key motive encouraging households to use photovoltaic technologies is financial. Individual consumers are mainly interested in reducing energy consumption costs [58].

Rahut et al. (2018) [59] also show that households with higher incomes are more likely to engage in the development of sustainable energy. This conclusion indicates that investments in photovoltaic technologies are strongly dependent on economic factors.

McCarthy and Liu (2022) [60] also draw attention to the importance of household income in the process of making decisions about the use of solar energy. Moreover, researchers emphasize the role of eco-efficiency in motivating sustainable energy consumption. Additionally, they emphasize the reluctance of prosumers to change their habits and give up convenience in order to save energy.

In light of the above, in the process of developing non-renewable energy sources, instruments subsidizing and financing photovoltaic installations in households and enterprises become extremely important. This aspect is also drawn by Ahmed et al. (2022) [61].

Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that some studies describe the low effectiveness of positive financial incentives for the use of RES. It follows from the analyses of Brodnicke et al. (2023) [62], which showed that a guaranteed tariff and investment subsidies reduce costs for prosumers by 10%, but increase the cost of energy for other consumers by as much as 33%. This situation poses a threat to energy equality.

Government tax actions to increase the use of renewable energy sources (the so-called solar tax) have also not had the desired effect in Spain, as identified by Tomasi (2022) [63]. Therefore, research and analyses should still be conducted on the optimization of billing systems in the prosumer energy market [64] and on the effectiveness of central and regional support for RES.

Prosumerism is also criticized by Brown et al. (2020) [65]. The authors note that the business models proposed within this trend promote competing value logics, the future of which is imaginary and utopian. They also draw attention to the need to include issues related to value, change and agency in social debates on prosumerism.

In the context described above, research conducted by Georgarakis et al. (2021) [66] in the Netherlands is optimistic. It shows that prosumers are not focused solely on economic benefits. They consider environmental issues as important, and sometimes even as the most important. They are also willing to donate surplus energy produced to energy-poor households. This creates the basis for implementing a fairer and more sustainable energy transformation, although such negotiations seem to concern primarily developed economies, where material needs are met to an above-average extent and the income level of the population is high.

Similar conclusions are reached by Palm (2020) [67], who notes that initial users of photovoltaics care deeply about the environment. Financial issues are not a priority for them. Economic aspects become more important for prosumers over time, which suggests the need for a diversified approach to incentives for the use of renewable energy sources.

Non-economic motives also appear to be more important in developed economies. For example, Australian prosumers in the process of using sustainable energy primarily expect efficient and effective technical systems. Environmental reasons also make them decide to use renewable energy sources. They consider investment and financial issues to be less important [68].

The social dimension of prosumerism also appears in the research of Klein et al. (2021) [69], conducted in Portugal. By creating a methodology to assess social values on the peer-to-peer (P2P) market, the authors emphasize the role of non-economic and non-technological factors supporting the development of RES. In this way, they reach the roots of P2P transactions, which are the sharing economy, being a part of the social economy.

The above observations are supplemented by Robra et al. (2020) [70], who note that the idea of prosumer exchange should be eco-sufficiency, meaning production and consumption at a sufficient level. In practice, this means reducing the throughput of energy and matter in prosumer systems aimed at achieving real sustainability.

2.3. Autarky as a Social Motive for the Use of Photovoltaic Technologies

One of the important and non-economic reasons for using solar energy is also the pursuit of autarky, i.e., independence from networked, organized energy supplies. It is driven by the desire to minimize costs and maximize energy security. Autarky is a concept derived from macroeconomics. In this context, it means economic self-sufficiency, and in practice, the lack of import and export. In the context of prosumers, it also means independence, in this case from external energy supplies. However, as in the economy, it is assumed that achieving full autarky is fundamentally impossible. Nevertheless, it is important to strive for this state, and thus minimize both the costs and risks of energy supplies.

Pena-Bello et al. (2021a) [71] emphasize that autarky can lead to benefits at the individual level (reduced energy bills), the community level (higher community autarky) and the network level (reduced stress). The results obtained by Pena-Bello et al. (2021b) [72] also suggest that community autarky is slightly higher when prosumers have the opportunity to trade energy compared to when their goal is only to maximize self-consumption.

On the other hand, the research of Ecker et al. (2018) [73] shows that prosumers with a higher tendency to autarky are more willing to bear the costs related to the development of photovoltaic technologies. They are particularly interested in investing in decentralized energy storage systems.

Nevertheless, in the light of the research results of Sabadini and Madlener (2021) [74], the prevalence of autarky in households does not seem to be a realistic prediction of the future. The authors’ findings indicate that, for German households, leaving the grid is not the best economic choice. Today, it can be more cost-effective to maintain grid connection by simply minimizing the amount of electricity purchased from the grid and optimizing the size of the photovoltaic battery system.

Schmidt and Behrendt (2023) [75] are not so pessimistic. They believe that the cost competitiveness of autarky can be achieved within the next decade. They also emphasize that the profitability of disconnecting from the power grid depends on the location of the property, the technological advancement of the building and the building type (multi- and single-family buildings).

The autarky trend also analyzes the peer-to-peer (P2P) transaction market, which is the full dimension of prosumer independence [76]. Schneiders et al. (2022) [77] believe that this is an important dimension of the sharing economy, but one that requires proper regulatory supervision and controlled development due to the risks and pathologies accompanying this market model.

The above observations are confirmed by the results of analyses conducted by Schultis et al. (2019) [78], from which it follows that prosumer autarky works best in combination with controlled energy consumption in the network. In such a model, the efficiency of the entire system is the highest.

It is also worth emphasizing that many different factors influence the functioning of the P2P market, and thus the desire to achieve autarky. Among them, Hahnel and Fell (2022) [79] list the political orientation of individuals, attachment to place and beliefs regarding climate change, as well as individual differences in trust in the entity organizing energy trading.

Summarizing the current research on autarky, it can be concluded that it is motivated by the need to achieve greater energy security and the desire to control the costs associated with obtaining energy. Its level is highly individualized and depends on many behavioral and general economic factors.

Autarky may also be an important determinant of the development of the P2P market. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that achieving full independence by all prosumers would involve numerous threats to the functioning of the photovoltaic energy market. The multiplicity of individual aspirations could threaten the continuity of energy supplies and result in a loss of control over the energy market in a holistic approach.

2.4. Promoting Renewable Energy Sources

An important variable in the decision-making process regarding the use of photovoltaics is knowledge about the possibilities of using solar energy and its benefits, as clearly indicated by the research results of Nadolny et al. (2022) [80]. For these reasons, the promotion of renewable energy sources is an important element supporting the green transformation. Meanwhile, only several studies address the issue of its effectiveness. Thus, Hansen et al. (2022) [81] note, based on a study of Danish households, that in the initial phase of the development of photovoltaics in Denmark, an effective information channel was the press and marketing activities undertaken by companies installing photovoltaic installations. However, over time, there was an increase in the importance of informal forms of promotion, involving peer opinions based on experience using solar energy.

Promotion and marketing activities for the use of renewable energy sources appear in research on sustainable energy, usually alongside other leading considerations. Thus, Chatterjee et al. (2023) [82], when describing the willingness to co-create prosumer business value, draw attention to the beneficial impact of digital media on prosumers’ attitudes and their willingness to use RES.

Referring to promotional details, it is worth adding that given the dominance of economic motives in the decision-making process regarding the use of renewable energy sources [83], attention should be paid to the need to highlight the financial benefits related to photovoltaics in the promotional information message, which is strongly called for by Li et al. (2022) [84] based on research conducted in Norway. In this regard, it is worth using real case studies and the history of experience of current prosumers [85].

The need for the effective promotion of photovoltaics is particularly urgent in emerging and developing economies, where there are many barriers to the implementation of renewable energy sources [86]. This need is also emphasized by Osorio-Aravena et al. (2021) [87] based on their research in Chile. As stated by the authors, without effective promotion and a system of incentives for the installation of photovoltaic installations, the decarbonization and systematic development of renewable energy sources in this country will not be possible at all due to high costs and low societal income.

Similar conclusions were reached by Sontyk et al. (2023) [88] in their research on prosumerism in Ukraine. The authors emphasize the need for investment support and favorable taxation of green energy in order to popularize the development of RES. They also call for the central development of energy storage and prosumer microgrids.

In this context, Botelho et al. (2022) [89] emphasize the role of central regulatory policy pursued by the state. Using the example of Brazil, the authors demonstrate the need for utility companies to promote prosumer aggregation in the Brazilian energy sector, aimed at optimizing existing business models.

However, as Scandurra et al. (2024) [90] note, state policy in the field of promoting renewable energy sources is not always effective. Using the example of the Italian economy, they note that the flow of additional money from the state budget may encourage criminal organizations to misuse it. Fraud and embezzlement of state funds may therefore reduce the effectiveness of subsidizing renewable energy sources [91]. This is especially important in countries with high levels of crime and corruption.

In the existing research, both autarky and the promotion of photovoltaics appear as side topics. There is no in-depth analysis of these factors in the context of prosumer decisions. Therefore, a research gap exists, the filling of which will allow a better understanding of the behavior of prosumers and more effective design of activities to popularize the use of renewable energy sources.

Moreover, the evaluation of the effectiveness of photovoltaic promotion has not been conducted from a prosumer perspective. Meanwhile, it is prosumers who are the recipients and decision-makers in the process of using this energy source. In turn, the more effective the promotion, the greater the chances of increasing the use of renewable energy sources in the economy.

In summary, the analyses fill the research gap from three perspectives: (1) autarky as a motive for using photovoltaics; (2) identification of sociodemographic characteristics influencing autarky; (3) assessment of the effectiveness of photovoltaic promotion channels. The research is conducted from the perspective of prosumers, which distinguishes it from general economic considerations and international comparisons.

For these reasons, the goal of further research is to determine whether and to what extent autarky influenced prosumers’ decisions about the use of solar energy in households, and which promotional channels played the most important role in making these decisions. Additionally, the article seeks to answer the question of whether and how the age of the respondents, their place of residence and the age of the property differentiate the studied group in terms of the importance of autarky and the choice of promotional channel on the photovoltaics market. Obtaining answers to the above questions will allow a better understanding of the basis of prosumers’ decisions and the adaptation of solar energy promotion channels to established preferences.

3. Materials and Methods

The description of the adopted research methodology covers three aspects. The first is to justify undertaking the research and formulate research questions. The second one refers to the characteristics of the survey as a research tool. The third provides an overview of the statistical analysis tools used.

3.1. Justification for Undertaking the Research and Research Questions

The research addressed two issues: autarky and the promotion of renewable energy sources, seeking to identify the role of these factors in the decision-making process regarding the use of photovoltaics. Detailed research in this area has not been conducted to date, and its results may contribute to effective actions for sustainable energy transformation, which is particularly important in emerging and developing economies.

Thus, the first part of the research seeks to answer the question:

RQ1: What proportion of Polish prosumers are interested in gaining full energy independence?

This is how the level of prosumer autarky is identified. Obtaining an answer to such a research problem can be used both in the promotion of renewable energy sources and in creating relationships in the P2P market. It may also be useful in stimulating desired consumption and investment habits and behaviors, because, as shown in the literature review, the levels of propensity to autarky differentiate between prosumers in this respect.

Furthermore, research on autarky also seeks answers to a more detailed research question:

RQ2: Is there a relationship between the individual characteristics of prosumer households (place of residence, age of the property owner, age of the property) and the level of autarky?

Research on the determinants of autarky mentioned in the question has not been conducted so far, and a detailed explanation of their selection is provided in the following methodological considerations. Obtaining information on the factors associated with the tendency to autarky will allow us to diversify incentive systems and methods of promoting renewable energy sources, which should have a positive impact on the effectiveness of such activities.

As mentioned in the introduction, the second part of the research concerns the promotion of photovoltaic technologies. In this regard, two research problems were also formulated, listed below.

RQ3: What promotional channels are the most effective form of popularizing photovoltaic technologies?

RQ4: Are the individual characteristics of prosumer households (place of residence, age of the property owner, age of the property) related to decisions about the choice of channel for obtaining information about photovoltaics?

Promoting knowledge about the possibilities and benefits of renewable energy sources is extremely important in the process of increasing the scope of their use. Therefore, obtaining answers to the above questions allows us to focus on marketing activities. It also enables the rationalization of public and private expenditure by limiting the waste of funds on ineffective promotional channels.

The research was conducted in Poland, therefore, the basic principles and conditions for the development of photovoltaics in this region are worth analyzing. In a universal context, the term prosumer is a combination of the words “producer” and “consumer”. It is therefore an entity that is involved in both production and consumption. In the energy market, prosumers are understood as producers of electricity generated in their renewable energy installation, most often a photovoltaic micro-installation. In Poland, a prosumer may be the owner of a registered system of renewable energy sources, who uses the electricity produced as a result of the operation of, for example, photovoltaic panels and an inverter. Thus, the prosumer can power all electrical devices located on their property. The concept of “prosumer” was defined in 2016 in the amended Polish Act on Renewable Energy Sources of 20 February 2015 [92]. Pursuant to statutory provisions, both a recipient purchasing electricity under a comprehensive contract and an electricity producer may become a prosumer. Prosumers can be households, as well as entrepreneurs. Nevertheless, the main condition for prosumer activity is the consumption of the generated kilowatt-hours for their own needs. Therefore, entrepreneurs, for whom energy production is the main element of business activity, cannot become prosumers [92]. The article covers prosumers, who meet the above rules and belong to the household group (entrepreneurs were not surveyed).

In the context of the conducted research, the principles of energy billing by prosumers should also be clarified. Thus, up until 1 April 2022, prosumer energy was settled using the net-metering model. At the time, electricity that was not consumed for current needs was fed into the power grid, where it was stored for a year. As part of this service, the operator retained 20% of the transmitted energy in the case of installations with capacity equal to or less than 10 kW, and 30% for PV power plants larger than 10 kW. Since 1 April 2022, all prosumers have been covered by the net-billing model, in which prosumers can no longer send unused energy to the grid. They can only sell it. The price of a kilowatt hour is determined on the basis of stock exchange quotations, which take place via the Polish Power Exchange as part of the so-called Day Ahead Market [93]. This change is perceived by prosumers as negative.

3.2. Survey as a Research Tool

Due to the fact that the literature on the subject lacks analyses conducted from the perspective of prosumers, the research used a survey questionnaire addressed to a representative sample of prosumers. This technique is a look at prosumerism in an individual and microeconomic way. Learning the behaviors and characteristics of prosumers allows for their categorization and adjustment of the promotional message to tailored needs, which increases the effectiveness of the impact on increasing the use of renewable energy sources.

The research was conducted as a survey on a representative group of 754 Polish prosumers. The sample size was determined with the following assumptions:

• fraction size: 0.5;
• 4% maximum error defining the scale of the difference between the results obtained in the sample and the population;
• 97% confidence percentage that determines the certainty of the results obtained.

The research was conducted in early 2023.

During the research, stratified sampling was not assumed (for example, by installed capacity or region), due to the lack of detailed data on the parameters of prosumers in the entire population. Therefore, it was a simple random selection based on data on the total population of prosumers.

The survey was commissioned to an agency selected in a tender procedure and with experience and recommendations in conducting nationwide surveys. The subject of the contract concluded with the contractor was to provide complete results for 754 respondents (100% return rate, guaranteeing representativeness of the sample). The research was performed using the Computer Assisted Web Interviewing (CAWI) method with additional telephone support from the agency collecting the research results.

Surveys were used in the article to identify the social perspective and learn about the individual preferences of prosumers. Therefore, the questions included in the survey are not of an evaluative or expert nature, and the results obtained are mainly used to better match activities to expectations. It should also be emphasized that research conducted from the individual perspective of prosumers is much less frequently conducted, even though it is social behavior and attitudes that influence the final decisions about the use of RES. In turn, the sum of these decisions contributes to the effectiveness of the green transformation in a given economy.

In the author’s survey questionnaire, respondents were asked the following question regarding autarky: Would you be interested in achieving energy self-sufficiency by using renewable energy sources and disconnecting from central electricity supplies? The responses were identified on a 5-point scale: 1—definitely no; 2—no; 3—I don’t know; 4—yes; 5—definitely yes. This allowed for assessment of the degree of prosumers’ interest in the idea of autarky.

In the section devoted to the promotion of photovoltaics, respondents assessed the effectiveness of the following forms of disseminating information about RES:

• Internet,
• TV,
• press,
• professional industry literature,
• companies installing photovoltaics,
• government photovoltaic-related materials,
• other, please specify:

A 5-point Likert scale (1 = to a very small extent; 5 = to a very large extent) was used in this stage to identify how useful the above-mentioned information channels were in the participants’ decision-making process regarding photovoltaics consumption.

According to the above, the survey questionnaire finally contains 7 questions assessed on a 5-point Liker scale. The first question concerned interest in autarky and the next 6 questions concerned the role of individual media in the promotion of photovoltaics. In assessing the reliability of the entire questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used. This coefficient assesses the coherence of the questions included in the questionnaire. It takes values from 0 to 1. Values above 0.7 are considered acceptable [94,95].

3.3. Statistical Tools in the Analysis of Survey Results

The reliability of the questionnaire designed in this way was assessed using the Cronbach’s alpha test, which allows assessment of the degree of connection between individual test items. The questionnaire is considered reliable if the Cronbach’s alpha test value is higher than 0.7 [94,95].

Additionally, the questionnaire included three variables differentiating the study group:

• respondents’ age (below 30 years old; 31–50 years old; above 50 years old);
• age of the property (below 5 years; 6–10 years; 11–20 years; above 20 years);
• place of residence (rural; city area).

The above characteristics of the respondents were highlighted on the data sheet due to the following circumstances:

• Currently, three generations (X, Y and Z) are active decision-makers in the electricity market; they differ significantly in values and attitudes [96,97,98], which, in turn, influence the choices and decisions they make. Therefore, the age of prosumers was considered a feature that may also significantly affect the behavior of these generations on the electricity market.
• The age of the property is closely related to the heating systems used and energy efficiency [99,100,101]. The older the property, the more difficult it is (for technical and economic reasons) to adapt it to the use of modern, pro-ecological energy solutions. Taking the above regularities into account, this feature was included in the specification in order to verify whether it differentiates between prosumers in matters related to energy independence and the promotion of photovoltaics.
• The place of residence (rural area or city) may, in turn, influence both the technical capabilities of the photovoltaic installation, as well as access and intensity of information promoting renewable energy [102,103]. For these reasons, this feature was included in the data as a potential determinant of various attitudes and behaviors of prosumers.

The above features allowed for the verification of hypotheses regarding the influence of the age of respondents, the age of the property and the place of residence on interest in autarky and the choice of channel informing about photovoltaics. The research results obtained in this area enabled the structuring of the target group and formulation of recommendations for the more effective targeting of promotional campaigns.

The aggregated survey results were analyzed in two stages. The first one examined general tendencies and used descriptive statistics to establish measures of central tendency (mean, median, dominant), diversity (minimum, maximum, standard deviation, coefficient of variation), skewness and kurtosis of the response distribution. The second one examined the dependence of interest in autarky and the choice of information channel regarding photovoltaics on personal characteristics. For this purpose, two non-parametric statistical tests were used to compare the distributions of several variables:

• the Mann-Whitney U test for two unrelated samples comparing the median of the distributions (used for the place of residence: rural/city area);
• the Kruskal-Wallis test for more than two unrelated samples comparing the variance of distributions (used for the age of the property and the age of the respondents).

A significance level of p < 0.05 was adopted in both cases.

The remaining part of the article presents the research results divided into threads regarding autarky and forms of promotion, respectively.

A summary of the assumptions and research stages described above is presented in

Table 1. The characteristics of the researched energy companies.

Stage	Research Question	Research Tools
Assessment of the tendency to autarky	RQ1: What proportion of Polish prosumers are interested in gaining full energy independence?	A survey question about interest in autarky rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Measures of central tendency and diversity.
Identification of the determinants of autarky.	RQ2: Is there a relationship between the individual characteristics of prosumer households (place of residence, age of the property owner, age of the property) and the level of autarky?	The use of three demographic questions and a survey question about interest in autarky. The Mann-Whitney U test for two unrelated samples. The Kruskal-Wallis test for more than two unrelated samples.
Assessment of the effectiveness of photovoltaic technologies promotion channels.	RQ3: What promotional channels are the most effective form of popularizing photovoltaic technologies?	Survey questions about the effectiveness of photovoltaic technologies information sources rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Measures of central tendency and diversity.
Identification of connections between individual characteristics of households and the choice of channel for obtaining information about photovoltaic technologies.	RQ4: Are the individual characteristics of prosumer households (place of residence, age of the property owner, age of the property) related to decisions about the choice of channel for obtaining information about photovoltaic technologies?	The use of three demographic questions and a survey question on the effectiveness of information sources about photovoltaics. The Mann-Whitney U test for two unrelated samples. The Kruskal-Wallis test for more than two unrelated samples.
Linking research results with RES development policy in Poland.	-	SWOT analysis

Source: own work.

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4. Results

4.1. The Importance of Autarky in Prosumer Attitudes

Before the substantive analysis of the research results, a reliability test of the survey questions was performed. The Cronbach’s alpha test was used, which determines the extent to which the questions included in the survey are related to each other. The result of this test for the questions analyzed in the survey was 0.0758, which means there is an acceptable level of reliability of the presented survey research.

The first stage of the research addressed the need for the energy independence of Polish prosumers. In this respect, the interest in autarky and its dependence on the characteristics of households using photovoltaics (i.e., place of residence, age of the owner and age of the property) were examined.

Figure 1 presents the distribution of answers to the general question regarding prosumers’ potential interest in gaining energy independence.

The responses received show that 50% of respondents would like to achieve energy self-sufficiency by using renewable energy sources and disconnecting from central electricity supplies, and only 14% are not interested in this option. This proves the very important role of autarky in making decisions about the use of renewable energy sources. This strong desire of Polish prosumers for self-sufficiency may result from uncertainty regarding prices and continuity of energy supplies, as well as the desire to control the final energy costs in the household. The instability of energy policy in Poland may increase identified expectations and aspirations, which, paradoxically, may generate increased interest in RES among individual consumers.

The great interest in achieving energy independence among Polish prosumers may have good and bad consequences in the future. Primarily, it can encourage involvement in the development of photovoltaics, because it creates an opportunity to become independent from organized energy supplies. The high tendency to autarky may also favor the development of modern technologies in the field of renewable energy production and storage, because current research shows that independent prosumers are quite resistant to the cost of investing in photovoltaic technologies.

However, excessive pursuit of energy independence also has a dark side. It may lead to disruptions in the functioning of the energy market if left uncontrolled and improperly organized. It may also reduce the efficiency of the entire energy system. For these reasons, it is worth educating prosumers and stimulating their behavior in desired directions, which can be helped by the detailed analysis of determinants and autarkic behavior presented below.

The research also attempted to identify groups with the greatest interest in becoming self-sufficient. For this purpose, the Mann-Whitney U test was used to identify the dependence of autarky on the place of residence (

Table 2. Results of the Mann-Whitney U test for identifying the dependence of autarky on the place of residence.

Variable	Rank Sum for the City	Rank Sum for the Rural Area	Z	p-Value
Autarky	164,063	120,572	2.2348	0.0254 *

* p < 0.05. Source: own work.

and

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for autarky in the rural area and in the city.

Group	Mean	Median	Dominant	Dominant Quantity	Standard Deviation	Coefficient of Variation
All	3.6499	4.0000	4.0000	271	1.0771	29.51%
City	3.7218	4.0000	4.0000	159	1.0783	28.97%
Rural area	3.5608	4.0000	4.0000	112	1.0704	30.06%

Source: own work.

) and the Kruskal-Wallis test was used to identify the dependence of autarky on the age of the property owner and the age of the property they live in.

The obtained results did not confirm any significant relationships between the tendency to autarky and the age of the owner and the age of the property. This means that the aspirations for energy self-sufficiency are similar among respondents irrespective of their generation or the condition of the building they live in.

Therefore, individual behavioral factors related to the age of respondents do not influence their tendency to autarky. It can therefore be assumed that general economic determinants have a greater and common impact on the willingness of Polish prosumers to become independent from central energy supplies. Therefore, concerns about the continuity of energy supplies, variability of energy policy and rising energy costs have a similar meaning for all prosumers, regardless of their age. Such attitudes may be a result of serious crises related to the COVID-19 pandemic and the armed conflict between Russia and Ukraine. In a threat situation, the need to maximize security, in this case energy security, intensifies.

However, it was found that the pursuit of energy independence is felt more strongly by city residents than by residents of rural areas (Table 2 and Table 3). City users of solar energy were not only more likely to express interest in autarky, but also demonstrated a stronger inclination towards it, which is documented by the number of dominants and the mean value in this group of respondents. Importantly, the similar differentiation of both groups proves that their beliefs and views are consolidated in the analyzed area (similar values of standard deviation and coefficient of variation).

Less interest in energy independence among rural residents may result from two circumstances. The first is related to a lower level of income, which, according to previous research, is inversely proportional to the tendency to autarky. The second one refers to the lower level of access to information and education among inhabitants of rural areas, which in turn may give rise to fears and concerns about meeting energy needs on their own.

4.2. The Importance of Autarky in Prosumer Attitudes

The next stage of the research sought answers to the question of how to influence potential prosumers to encourage them to use photovoltaics in their households. This approach allowed the authors to determine the current effectiveness of measures to promote renewable energy sources, and indicate their hierarchy in the context of future climate protection activities.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics for sources of information on the operation and use of photovoltaics in households.

Information Source	Statistical Measures
	Mean	Median	Dominant	Dominant Quantity	Minimum	Maximum	Standard Deviation	Coefficient of Variation	Skewness	Kurtosis
Internet	3.8793	4.0000	4.0000	285	1.0000	5.0000	1.0860	27.994	−0.9442	0.360
TV	2.8634	3.0000	3.0000	228	1.0000	5.0000	1.2587	43.957	0.1187	−0.935
press	2.6233	3.0000	3.0000	234	1.0000	5.0000	1.2169	46.386	0.2721	−0.802
professional industry literature	2.9257	3.0000	3.0000	200	1.0000	5.0000	1.2676	43.324	−0.0642	−1.049
companies installing photovoltaics	3.6645	4.0000	4.0000	263	1.0000	5.0000	1.1150	30.427	−0.6131	−0.307
government photovoltaic-related materials	2.8647	3.0000	3.0000	236	1.0000	5.0000	1.2402	43.292	−0.0015	−0.941

Source: own work.

presents descriptive statistics for sources of information on the operation and use of photovoltaics in households.

Additionally, Figure 2 shows the average effectiveness ratings for each of the examined information channels. Figure 3 shows the level of variation in survey assessments expressed by the variation coefficient.

The data obtained show that, for the surveyed prosumers, the best source of information about the use of photovoltaics was the Internet (the highest mean and the largest, highest dominant, as well as the highest left skewness of the distribution). The respondents were also the most consistent in this respect, which is documented by the lowest standard deviation and coefficient of variation. With the high level of digitization of society, the Internet may become the most effective way to promote renewable energy sources.

Companies installing photovoltaic installations also had a significant impact on prosumers’ decisions. A significant number of respondents stated that these entities helped them obtain information about the operation of photovoltaics to a large or very large extent. The respondents were also highly unanimous in this opinion. It is worth adding that many prosumers in the position “other, please specify” pointed to friends and family as a source of valuable information about the use of photovoltaics.

Other promotional means were considered to be much less helpful, i.e., professional industry literature, government photovoltaic-related materials, TV and the press, although, in the case of these sources, the respondents were more polarized in their assessment (higher standard deviations and coefficients of variation than in the case of the Internet and enterprises).

The described distribution of answers allows us to conclude that the respondents prefer to use their own distributed energy resources to obtain information about photovoltaics. It also indicates relatively low trust and interest in traditional marketing messages (press, TV) and government information, even though they mainly consist of campaigns promoting renewable energy sources and financial support for green investments.

The next stage of the research attempted to identify the relationships between the preferred source of information on photovoltaics and the characteristics of the surveyed households. Obtaining such information would enable more precise targeting of the marketing message, and thus could contribute to more effective promotion of the green transformation.

The research results indicate that there is no relationship between the age of the property and the preferred source of information about photovoltaics. However, they allow us to determine the influence of the owner’s age and place of residence on the choice of the RES information channel.

Table 5. Results of an analysis of the relationship between the source of photovoltaics promotion and the age of the property owner (the Kruskal-Wallis test).

Promotional Source	Kruskal-Wallis Test	p-Value
Internet	6.3037	0.0428 *
Companies installing photovoltaics	12.0555	0.0024 *
Government photovoltaic-related materials	6.7412	0.0344 *

p < 0.05 * Source: own work.

presents the results of an analysis of the relationship between the source of photovoltaics promotion and the age of the property owner (the Kruskal-Wallis test), while

Table 6. Descriptive statistics for the relationship between the promotional source and the age of the property owner.

Group	Mean	Median	Dominant	Dominant Quantity	Standard Deviation	Coefficient of Variation
Internet
Up to 30 years	3.6078	4.0000	4.0000	22	1.0598	29.37%
From 31 to 50 years	3.8626	4.0000	4.0000	161	1.1104	30.81%
Over 51 years	3.9613	4.0000	4.0000	102	1.0776	27.20%
Companies installing photovoltaics
Up to 30 years	3.3921	4.000000	4.0000	20	1.0407	30.68%
From 31 to 50 years	3.6036	4.000000	4.0000	152	1.1104	30.81%
Over 51 years	3.8224	4.000000	4.0000	91	1.1203	29.30%
Government photovoltaic-related materials
Up to 30 years	3.0588	3.0000	3.0000	19	1.0847	35.46%
From 31 to 50 years	2.7027	3.0000	3.0000	75	1.2041	40.99%
Over 51 years	2.7024	3.0000	3.0000	75	1.3150	48.65%

Source: own work.

presents descriptive statistics for the relationship between the promotional source and the age of the property owner.

Following the data in Table 4, the Internet turned out to be the most effective source of information about photovoltaics for prosumers over 51 years of age. This age group was also most likely to use information from companies installing photovoltaic installations. In turn, it had the least confidence in information provided by government institutions. Very similar results were also observed in the age group ranging from 31 to 50 years old.

The youngest group of respondents (below 30 years of age) had slightly less interest in Internet and business information (although these were still the sources with the greatest marketing effectiveness) and much higher trust in government materials.

The lower trust in government institutions among older groups of respondents may be due to unfavorable generational experiences related to the political and economic transformation of Poland in 1980–1990 during these respondents’ adolescence and maturity. These prosumers were brought up in a centrally planned economy, in which the media message was often untrue and its only role was limited to propaganda. Their distrust may, therefore, be the result of an entire history of experiences.

Additionally, prosumer doubts may be reinforced by the variability of energy policy that takes place after economic transformation and transition to a free market economy. The measurable consequences of this variability include a radical reorientation of the directions of RES development in Poland (moving away from wind energy to solar energy) and an unfavorable change in the model of settling energy generated by prosumers described in the methodological part of the article. Therefore, respondents have real grounds for distrust of government institutions and the information these institutions provide.

The lower trust in government institutions among older groups of respondents may be due to unfavorable generational experiences related to the political and economic transformation of Poland in 1980–1990 during these respondents’ adolescence and maturity. An assessment of the government’s message about RES also shows greater diversity among all surveyed age groups (the largest standard deviation and coefficient of variation), which, in turn, may be the result of the strong polarization of political factions in Poland in the last decade.

The research also identified significant differences in the effectiveness of information communication depending on the place of residence. The results of this research stage are presented in

Table 7. Results of the Mann-Whitney U test for identifying the dependence of the effectiveness of photovoltaics promotion on the place of residence.

Variable	Rank Sum for the City	Rank Sum for the Rural Area	Z	p-Value
TV	163.423	121.212	2.0195	0.0382 *
Press	166.630	118.005	3.0980	0.0014 *
Professional industry literature	169.868	114.766	4.1871	0.0000 *
Government photovoltaic-related materials	173.061	111.574	5.4094	0.0000 *

p < 0.05 * Source: own work.

and

Table 8. Descriptive statistics for the promotion of photovoltaics in rural areas and cities.

Group	Mean	Median	Dominant	Dominant Quantity	Standard Deviation	Coefficient of Variation
TV
All	2.8634	3.0000	3.000000	228	1.2586	43.95%
City	2.9496	3.0000	3.000000	132	1.2325	41.78%
Rural area	2.7567	3.0000	3.000000	96	1.2841	46.58%
Press
All	2.6233	3.0000	3.0000	234	1.2168	46.38%
City	2.7458	3.0000	3.0000	146	1.1899	43.33%
Rural area	2.4718	2.0000	1.0000	95	1.2344	49.93%
Professional industry literature
All	2.9257	3.0000	3.0000	200	1.2675	43.32%
City	3.1007	3.0000	4.0000	126	1.2439	40.11%
Rural area	2.7091	3.0000	3.0000	92	1.2647	46.68%
Government photovoltaic-related materials
All	2.8647	3.0000	3.0000	236	1.240208	43.29%
City	3.0791	3.0000	3.0000	137	1.193319	38.75%
Rural area	2.5994	3.0000	3.0000	99	1.247521	47.99%

Source: own work.

.

City residents returned higher ratings regarding the validity of using all sources of information about photovoltaics listed in the table, i.e., television, press, professional industry literature and government materials (higher than average rating). The biggest differences in this case concern the press and professional industry literature, which is most likely due to the low availability of these sources in rural areas. The assessment of residents of rural areas on the usefulness of government materials in making decisions about the use of solar energy sources rated much worse. Importantly, residents of rural areas differ more in their opinions on individual methods of promoting photovoltaics than urban residents, which means that it will be more difficult to meet their marketing expectations. This is significant, because the possibility of installing solar installations is much greater in rural areas due to the higher development of single-family housing and greater access to free space.

5. Discussion

5.1. Autarky in the Development of the Photovoltaics Market

In the first research step, answers were sought to the following research problem: RQ1: What proportion of Polish prosumers are interested in gaining full energy independence? The results obtained confirm the strong importance of autarky in the decision-making process regarding the use of photovoltaics. Polish prosumers want to become independent of network suppliers, which will allow them to control the financial and logistical aspects of energy supply. However, as Sabadini and Madlener (2021) [74] emphasize, based on the example of Germany, this is not currently possible. Therefore, the aspiration of Polish consumers for energy autarky may prove impossible to achieve. A centrally organized energy market still guarantees continuity and certainty of supply, which will be difficult to ensure individually, despite strong independence aspirations. Importantly, according to the conclusions of Schmidt and Behrendt (2023) [75], autarky in the energy industry will be possible from the perspective of a dozen or several dozen years; therefore, it is crucial to take this motive into account in energy strategies today, because it is a strong stimulus for the dissemination of RES and the sustainability of the modern energy industry. Therefore, at the current stage of development of Polish photovoltaics, autarky may be an incentive to increase involvement in RES, but it will not yet be fully possible.

In the course of research on autarky, we also addressed the second question: RQ2: Is there a relationship between the individual characteristics of prosumer households (place of residence, age of the property owner, age of the property) and the level of autarky? An important and new observation resulting from the analyses of autarky in this context is its differentiation depending on the place of residence (rural/urban). In light of the obtained results, urban residents show a greater tendency to autarky than rural residents. So far, this feature has not been studied and taken into account as a determinant of the pursuit of energy independence.

The high level of autarky identified in the majority of surveyed prosumers may be used in the future in the process of developing renewable energy sources. Previous research shows that prosumers with a high tendency towards energy independence are more willing to invest in new energy storage technologies [71,72,73] (and want to personally engage in P2P transactions). This is important general economic information. In the future, it can be used to stimulate desired behavior in terms of sustainable energy consumption.

5.2. Promotion in the Development of the Photovoltaics Market

The second research thread was the promotion of photovoltaics and the search for an answer to the following research problem: RQ3: What promotional channels are the most effective form of popularizing photovoltaic technologies? Furthermore, the identified hierarchy of effectiveness of different forms of photovoltaics promotion indicates the dominance of two information channels: (1) online and (2) businesses operated by companies offering photovoltaic systems. This confirms the conclusions of Chatterjee et al. (2023) [82] on the significant role of society’s digitalization in the green transformation.

Additionally, it can be concluded that the promotional preferences of Polish prosumers in seeking the opinion of experts are partially similar to those that characterize Danish users of photovoltaic installations [81]. Such expectations usually occur in the initial phase of development of the solar energy market. Over time, the opinions of friends, relatives and peers become more important, which is also reflected in both the Polish and Danish prosumer communities. The above comparative conclusions encourage the observation and analysis of the best practices of developed countries, where the energy transition is faster and more effective [95].

Nevertheless, the results of research on Polish prosumers do not confirm the significant role of traditional trade press in decision-making in the use of renewable energy sources [81], which may result from a significant decline in the popularity of printed newspapers and magazines. Currently, some publications are only published in electronic versions, and respondents treat them as online sources, which again highlights the role of digitalization in the pursuit of sustainable energy [82].

The research also did not confirm the effectiveness of government messages. Respondents are much less likely to be influenced by RES-targeted promotional central campaigns. This may be due to a lack of trust in state institutions, which is quite characteristic of politically unstable emerging and developing economies. Such distrust towards state institutions may result from experiences gained from centrally planned economies, where the media message was propagandistic. It may also be due to the variability of energy policies and the lack of consistency in the development and promotion of renewable energy sources. Finally, it may also be the result of a fear of new, unknown energy technologies, as well as the costs associated with their implementation and use.

The observed reluctance or indifference towards government materials promoting photovoltaics somewhat contradicts the literature recommendations, such as: Osorio-Aravena et al. (2021) [87], Sontyk et al. (2023) [88] and Botelho et al. (2022) [89], calling for the strengthening of the role of the state in the promotion of renewable energy sources in Chile, Ukraine and Brazil. In the process of creating and reinforcing a sustainable energy transformation, the issues of central planning and prosumer expectations should be balanced, and citizens’ concerns and possible lack of trust in public utility companies should be taken into account.

As part of the analysis of the promotion of photovoltaics, the last research question was also addressed: (RQ4) Are the individual characteristics of prosumer households (place of residence, age of the property owner, age of the property) related to decisions about the choice of channel for obtaining information about photovoltaics? The results of the analyses indicated a differentiation in the effectiveness of promotions based on age. Middle-aged respondents preferred the Internet, while the youngest group preferred government materials. This is a new observation not identified in the literature on the subject.

The effectiveness of the promotion also depended on the place of residence. City residents were more susceptible to television, press and professional and government advertising. This also highlights their greater awareness of renewable energy sources than rural residents.

The conclusions drawn have also allowed the authors to formulate the following recommendations for sustainable energy in emerging and developing economies:

• encouraging the use of photovoltaics by highlighting and increasing the energy independence of prosumers;
• striving to develop and implement technical and infrastructure solutions for autarky;
• taking into account the identified hierarchy of forms of promotion, in which the most important are online and business channels and so-called word-of-mouth marketing, in the process of the dissemination of renewable energy sources;
• developing government strategies for promoting renewable energy sources in line with the expectations of potential prosumers;
• strengthening prosumers’ trust in government institutions;
• depoliticizing and stabilizing the process of sustainable energy transformation, promoting a sense of security among the prosumer community.

Although the analyses in this article focus on social issues, it is also worth addressing technological and innovative issues as part of the recommendations. Offering prosumers the latest technological solutions may contribute to their achieving greater energy efficiency and reducing expenditure and costs associated with the use of photovoltaics. Such proposals are described in studies by, among others: Herrando et al. (2023) [16], Huang and Markides (2021) [17], Taghavi et al. (2023) [18], Peacock et al. (2022) [19] and Taghavi et al. (2021) [20].

5.3. Research Conclusions and Renewable Energy Development Policy in Poland

As emphasized in the introduction, Poland, as a developing economy struggling with many economic problems, still has problems with the effective implementation of the EU’s climate policy goals. Nevertheless, in the last few years, it has been intensively trying to develop photovoltaics using a system of various investment and financial incentives.

Choosing this direction in the development of RES allows for a close connection between the research results described in this article and Poland’s pro-ecological policy in photovoltaic technologies development. Such a proposal is presented in Figure 4 in the form of a SWOT matrix, in which:

• Strengths and weaknesses refer to the attitudes and behaviors of Polish prosumers observed in the research;
• Opportunities and threats of the renewable energy development policy result directly from the identified strengths and weaknesses and refer to the entire prosumer sector.

The data presented in Figure 4 show that the results of research on Polish prosumers can be treated primarily as a source of strength and opportunities for the development of renewable energy in Poland. This entitles government and local government decision-makers to use the so-called maxi-maxi aggressive strategy. It involves maximally strengthening the forces of the prosumer sector and taking advantage of opportunities related to having in-depth knowledge about prosumer expectations regarding autarky and activities promoting photovoltaics.

It is also worth emphasizing the need to combat the threat of lack of trust in public campaigns promoting renewable energy. This is particularly important due to the fact that the government is responsible for both the content and assumptions of the renewable energy development policy, as well as the effectiveness of actions taken in this area.

6. Conclusions

6.1. Summary of Research Results

The research shows that half of the surveyed prosumers (50%)—constituting a representative sample—would like to achieve energy independence. A significant number are undecided, and only 14% of respondents declare that they are not interested in autarky. This proves the importance of the energy independence motive in making decisions about the use of renewable energy sources. In their strategies and activities for the green transformation, government decision-makers should, therefore, take into account prosumer aspirations to achieve energy independence, as they constitute a strong incentive to change current energy consumption patterns. Such an incentive is particularly important for city dwellers, who are more likely to support autarky than residents of the rural areas.

Respondents consider the Internet (a score of 3.8793 on a 5-point suitability scale) and information from companies installing photovoltaic systems (a score of 3.6645 on a 5-point suitability scale) to be the most effective sources of promoting photovoltaics. These information channels were particularly important for respondents over 30 years of age. Friends and family, who use solar energy and can confirm its advantages and disadvantages, were also an important source of information for the respondents.

Traditional media, such as TV and the press, including professional industry publications, were much less popular, especially among residents of rural areas, who have less access to these media. Respondents also did not trust government photovoltaics-related promotional materials (a score of 2.8647 on a 5-point suitability scale), and the lack of trust in this information channel was stronger in the group of respondents over 30 years of age and residents of rural areas.

Figure 5 presents the aforementioned hierarchy of sources of photovoltaics promotion.

Prosumers prefer to look for information about photovoltaics on their own and in dispersed information sources. This approach allows them to confront and verify the collected information, and assess its final cognitive and decision-making value. Therefore, the use of online and business channels to promote photovoltaics, as well as the imitation effect, proves noteworthy in the process of strengthening behaviors conducive to green transformation.

A feature that did not differentiate the surveyed prosumers, both in terms of autarky and the promotion of renewable energy sources, was the age of the property. This means that prosumers’ attitudes towards energy independence and channels promoting photovoltaics are similar, irrespective of the period in which the property was built and, therefore, irrespective of its technical and energy condition.

The age of the surveyed prosumers was also not a feature that differentiated interest in autarky. The attractiveness of energy independence is, therefore, perceived similarly by representatives of all the generations surveyed (X, Y, Z). It is worth adding, however, that the age of the respondents was a feature that differentiated between the assessment of the usefulness of channels promoting photovoltaics. Statistically significant differences were related to the Internet, companies installing photovoltaic installations and government materials. Thus, the Internet and industry-specific enterprises were rated better by older prosumers (over 30 years of age). However, government materials turned out to be more useful for the youngest group of prosumers (under 30 years of age).

The feature that differentiated between both the attitude of prosumers towards autarky and the perception of promotional channels was the place of residence (rural or urban). City residents were more interested in gaining energy independence than rural residents. City residents also rated the usefulness of television, the press, professional industry literature and government materials in promoting photovoltaics higher than rural residents.

6.2. Research Strengths and Limitations

The strength of the research is its focus on prosumer attitudes. This aspect of photovoltaics is very rarely discussed in the literature. However, the use of solar energy as a renewable energy source depends on the individual decisions of prosumers. Without an effective impact on their attitudes and behavior, the development of photovoltaics on a larger scale will not be possible.

Additionally, the research undertaken in the article focuses on two reasons for using solar energy that have not yet been widely described. The first is the pursuit of energy independence. The second is related to the method of promoting and disseminating RES. Acquiring knowledge on this topic provides the basis for improving government and regional energy policies for the green transformation, which is currently particularly needed and important in emerging and developing economies.

The article also provides conclusions on the diversity of prosumers’ attitudes depending on their place of residence and the generation they belong to. This information may become the basis for adapting the promotional message to specific recipient groups. This, in turn, may result in activities aimed at promoting RES.

From a scientific point of view, the analyses in the article contribute to the development of knowledge in the field of the behavioral aspects of prosumerism. This is a supplement in the area of social sciences, with a particular emphasis on economics and marketing. This knowledge allows for the definition of the attitudes of prosumers and, consequently, the modeling of their reactions to economic and market stimuli.

The main research limitation of the presented results is the focus only on Polish prosumers. Nevertheless, this is a large and representative sample typical for a large European country. Our conclusions may, therefore, also be helpful in other emerging and developing economies that are struggling with the challenges of sustainable energy transformation. Moreover, the developed hierarchy of forms of renewable energy sources promotion may contribute to the effectiveness of activities aimed at popularizing photovoltaics in these economies.

The research limitations also include the use of simple statistical analysis methods and a data set that is limited both geographically and thematically. This made it impossible to carry out more in-depth considerations using advanced econometric models. Nevertheless, the presented results are new, valuable in practice and may constitute a basis for future comparative analyses.

6.3. Further Research Directions

In the context of the identified limitations, directions for further analysis and considerations may include replication of research in other economies. They may also focus on assessment of the effectiveness of government activities for the promotion and development of renewable energy sources from a social perspective. Such a view would allow prosumers’ expectations to be compared with the solutions offered, and would enable the assessment of trust in government proposals.

Further research may also be aimed at identifying stimuli and incentives that modify prosumers’ energy habits. This would allow for the optimization of solar energy consumption in households. This approach is not exposed in the literature, which currently focuses on mathematical models for optimizing demand and supply in the photovoltaics market.