In Saudi Arabia, the electricity industry is now the country’s biggest supplier of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, next to the transportation industry, which is responsible for around 26% of these releases [
1]. Traditional gasoline automobiles emit considerable amounts of GHGs. The deployment of electric vehicles (EVs) in the transportation industry presents a potential remedy to the pollution concern [
2]. If these vehicles are charged using an emission-free scheme, this solution can be considered doubly green, as it minimizes environmental harm during both the charging and operation phases.
Global warming, environmental concerns, price swings of traditionally generated electrical power, and environmental catastrophes highlight the urgency to use renewable energy sources (RESs) to supply the energy requirements for transportation as well as other domains [
3]. Additionally, the demand for transportation fuels in Saudi Arabia is rising due to an increasing number of automobiles on the road. In accordance to the International Trade Administration, in 2020, Saudi Arabia accounted for roughly 52% of the total sales of automobiles in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries and 35% of the vehicles sold in the Middle East and North Africa area. In 2022, a total of approximately 625,767 vehicles were sold in Saudi Arabia, marking a significant increase from the previous year. The vehicle sales further rose in 2023, reaching 645,723 units, which represented a 24.3% increase compared to 2022. Sales are projected to reach 577,000 units by 2025, with EVs accounting for about 32,000 units. Nevertheless, the proportion of non-electric automobiles remains substantially higher than that of EVs, and this trend is likely to continue for the following twenty years [
4]. As the consumption of petroleum increases with the rapid growth of the transportation industry, it is expected that the generation of toxic gasses and noise nuisances will expand further. Energy from renewable sources has not been substantially implemented in the transportation industry, resulting in continued contamination of the environment from vehicles that rely on gasoline or diesel. The majority of automobiles still use fuels made from petroleum, which generate dangerous emissions and cause noise problems. The development of the automobile industry is not specific to Saudi Arabia; it follows an international trend. Moreover, the electrical power demand in the transportation sector increased by about 2.2% annually in the 1990s and was projected to rise by approximately 2.8% annually between 1999 and 2020 [
5], a prediction that has proven accurate. In Saudi Arabia, transportation fuels still make up a significant portion of the overall oil demand.
Furthermore, declining oil sources, the pressing need to safeguard the surroundings, and attempts to combat environmental degradation have generated a significant incentive to develop greener and cleaner solutions for meeting the automotive sector’s electricity needs. There are over 700 charging sites across the country managed by Electromin, a major player in the Saudi EV market. Energy from renewable sources such as solar and wind energy, as well as the grid network, are some of the environmentally friendly alternatives that can be used to meet this requirement.
Furthermore, because RESs like sun and wind are intermittent, they frequently fluctuate. This unpredictability means that an electrical production system integrating RES components may lack the durability, security, and continuity of a system that does not include such components [
6]. To ensure a continuous electricity supply, particularly for off-grid operations, a storage system must be introduced [
7]. To address these challenges and efficiently utilize available RESs, integrating two or more of these resources into a combined electricity production system can effectively meet the charging demands of EVs. Using RESs reduces carbon emissions from conventional energy sources, thereby mitigating the impact of global warming. Currently, many solar photovoltaic (SPV)-based energy systems are used globally to power EV applications due to their well-understood operational paradigm. Additionally, wind energy is an appealing choice for generating power because it is more effective [
8]. When paired with storage technologies such as batteries and SPV systems, wind power can offer a continuous, stable, and economical supply of electricity [
9].
1.1. Literature Survey
In recent years, there has been a lot of interest in the research of EV charging stations and the corresponding techno-economic analysis. Much research has looked into the building of charging stations that can accommodate EV loads and charging needs [
10]. The power production by SPV systems is considered the most practical solution for charging EVs amongst different forms of RES, due to its consistent availability in both rural and urban areas [
11]. The authors examine the vulnerabilities and attack vectors within blockchain-integrated communication networks used in renewable energy systems. By analyzing extensive datasets, this study identifies common cyberattack patterns and suggests strategies for enhancing security in these decentralized networks, ensuring more robust protection against potential threats [
12]. The authors of [
13] established an energy infrastructure that decreases GHG emissions, increases the efficiency of energy use, and broadens the availability of solar energy options, emphasizing the key drivers behind the rapid growth of RESs. In [
14], an optimized EV charging system is presented for scheduling battery swapping at charging stations. According to the authors of [
15], renewable energy-powered charging stations outperform grid-tied EV charging systems in terms of price and ecological effects. In the latest research, an exhaustive evaluation is performed on the optimal design and scalability of centralized EV charging stations [
16], focusing on the battery logistics system. Further, EV charging management at stations is analyzed based on various customer responses [
17], categorizing charging problems into electricity distribution and pricing strategies. In [
18], the authors propose an efficient framework utilizing smart contracts to enhance security in smart grid communications. The framework aims to ensure secure and reliable data exchange while minimizing computational overhead, making it well-suited for resource-constrained environments in smart grid applications. In [
19], the effect of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technologies on utility hub voltage at charging stations is examined. As an outcome, entrepreneurs are currently building solar-based charging facilities comparable to typical gas stations alongside roads. However, it is noted that grid-independent SPV charging stations might be unviable due to fluctuations in SPV system power output caused by changing atmospheric conditions [
20].
A technological and financial viability study of the V2G system concept in Indonesia’s biggest electrical grid is conducted [
21]. Their investigation shows that using EVs has the ability to lower peak hour production by roughly 2.9% for thermal coal and 8.9% for gaseous fuels. From the standpoint of the electrical business, fuel replacement through V2G adoption might increase annual revenue by around 3.65%. A Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter (SEPIC) was used in the development of an SPV–Battery–Diesel-Generator (DG)-based hybrid electricity system that uses the perturb and observe technique to harvest maximum electricity from the solar-based energy system [
22]. In this study, the charging station approach employs the grid and DG when the storage device capacity and SPV output are inadequate. The effectiveness of using the proportional–integral (PI) control approach was assessed in relation to the fuzzy-PI control technique. In Bangladesh, the layout and feasibility assessment of a RES-based hybrid configuration for EV supply equipment was carried out to decrease the load on the electrical grid caused by the sudden rise in EVs [
23]. The designed hybrid charging station consists of an SPV panel, three biogas generators, lead-acid battery storage, a converter, and charging equipment. This technology forecasts an electricity cost of USD 0.1302 per kWh, a gross net present cost of USD 56,202, and a reduction in carbon dioxide pollution of roughly 34.7% compared to a standard grid-powered charging facility. In [
24], the authors conducted a techno-economic assessment of SPV-powered EV charging stations under various solar radiation conditions and noticed that solar radiation values and the feed-in tariff cost of rooftop solar energy have an important influence on the optimal system and profitability of the charging facility in every metropolitan spot. The techno-economic feasibility of an EV charging station using RES was assessed in distinct locations in Nigeria [
25]. The findings demonstrate that the SPV/wind turbine (WT)/battery charging station in Sokoto, Nigeria’s northwestern region, provides the greatest economic indicators while having the lowest net present expenses and electricity costs. The sensitivity analysis reveals that the techno-economic metrics of the optimum charging process are susceptible to changes in the sensitivity factors. In the end, the technical, financial, and ecological implications of coupled solar–wind EV charging stations for roads in different places in India were explored [
26]. The study found that the Virudhunagar District of Tamil Nadu had the lowest total net present cost (TNPC) of USD 303,291.26 and Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of 0.072 USD/kWh with significant emission reductions, while the nearest Madurai District produces 70% more electrical power compared to other designated regions.
Additional research efforts have explored integrating capacitors with EV charging infrastructure within electrical networks, evaluating the impact of distributed generation on system reliability [
27]. In another study, a combined Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) approach was used to identify optimal locations for EV charging stations and distributed generation sources integrated with the grid network. This method was validated on standard IEEE bus systems [
28]. The use of autoencoder models is explored to predict key parameters affecting SPV power generation in smart grids. By leveraging machine learning techniques, the study aims to enhance the accuracy of predictions, thereby improving the efficiency and reliability of solar power integration into the smart grid [
29]. In [
30], researchers optimized the placement of EV charging facilities and SPV-powered distributed generation using a hybrid and GWO approach. Benchmark studies have also been conducted to design grid and renewable-powered EV charging stations across various Indian cities. These studies considered realistic solar insolation and wind velocity data to minimize energy costs and overall system expenses [
31]. A study conducts an economic and technological evaluation of several hybrid energy system topologies for EV charging stations, including SPV, WT, natural gas generators, and Battery Energy Storage (BES). The EV load demand is computed using HOMER-Pro software(HOMER Pro ×64.Ink), taking into account an institution’s mobility fleet and five distinct meteorological areas in Malaysia. The performance analysis of these hybrid energy systems is further analyzed for social benefits and ecological effects by integrating the human development and job creation index [
32]. In [
33], an affordable hybrid approach for fulfilling domestic community demand in underdeveloped regions of India is proposed, with a focus on optimal storage technology. The monetary and technological features of an isolated hybridized green energy system are examined, along with the ecological advantages of autonomous SPV/WT/DG/BES combinations. Among the battery storage solutions explored, Lead-Acid Flow technology is the most appropriate. The optimized hybrid setup has the lowest LCOE, USD 0.192 per kWh, and a TNPC of USD 123,851. An integrated renewable energy system concept that is financially feasible, ecologically conscious, and socially advantageous by including social considerations in the design requirements is presented [
34]. The proposed system incorporates an SPV, a WT micro-hydro turbine, a biogas generator, and a vanadium redox flow battery for meeting the local load requirement in an isolated rural region of Bangladesh, which ranges between 951 and 1526 kWh/day. Another study used HOMER software (HOMER Pro ×64.Ink) to develop and optimize a wind–solar hybrid energy charging station. The sizing methodology is applicable worldwide. The ideal hybrid system configuration consists of 44.4% wind electricity and 55.6% solar generation, with a yearly power generation of 843,150 kWh and an energy cost of USD 0.064 per kWh [
35].
An innovative approach has been suggested to analyze the technical as well as financial feasibility of upgrading an existing petrol station with EV charging infrastructure [
36]. This research study investigates the possible advantages of integrating a BES device with the EV charging station to reduce grid connectivity expenses. The findings in [
25] demonstrate that systems comprising four EV charging stations with one storage battery for 8 h of operation, and systems with four EV charging station, one BES system, and one SPV panel for 8 h of operation, are economically feasible in terms of net present value, internal rate of return, and discounted payback period. The authors of [
37] studied the financial viability of establishing electric charging stations, finding that such stations are only viable if acquisition costs are kept to a minimum, yielding a return of 1.47 times the initial investment over the lifecycle cost. The study in [
38] evaluates various renewable energy-based hybrid energy systems for EV charging in the capital city of the UAE, determining that the optimal system could generate an annual surplus of 22 MWh with a COE of approximately USD 0.068 per kWh.
Table 1 provides a comparative analysis of existing studies in the domain of EV charging, highlighting their strengths, weaknesses, and applications.
1.2. Motivation, Research Gap and Contribution
To decrease the stress on the electricity network while offering an environmentally conscious and fiscally viable alternative for effectively satisfying EV charging need, an efficient and low-cost technology that generates cleaner electrical energy is required. As previously stated, all contemporary EV charging stations are grid-connected and provide electric power to fulfill EV charging requests. While EV charging has environmental and economic advantages, it also has an adverse impact on the current network’s functioning. Despite rising trends in EV usage and growth in Saudi Arabia, the nation is still lacking effective, economical, and environmentally acceptable solutions for EV charging station electricity supply due to a scarcity of charging stations. This scarcity may limit the expansion of the use of electric vehicles. As a result, an integrated renewable energy system is necessary, in which one energy source can compensate for the restrictions or inability of another, improving the system’s overall resilience. The literature frequently recommends RES-based independent systems to alleviate the strain on the electrical infrastructure produced by numerous EV charging station connections, which can have a severe impact on power quality and reliability. To the best of our comprehension, no such hybridized system has been investigated in Saudi Arabia for supplying energy to EV charging stations, which has become the inspiration for our current work. RESs are gradually taking the place of traditional energy sources around the globe because they provide dependable electricity, help to conserve earth’s resources, expand energy sources, and make them available perpetually from a human time perspective. Using RES improves the security of supply, minimizes the use of fossil fuels, and lowers the chance of fuel leaks, which may negatively impact ecosystems and communities. These environmentally friendly supplies may provide an enormous quantity of renewable electricity to run EVs, increase industrial productivity, and cut greenhouse gas emissions in metropolitan areas while keeping a clean environment. Saudi Arabia, ranked eighth in the world for clean energy potential, has optimal climatic conditions, including an unending clear sky, a great geographic position, huge unoccupied surroundings, and no architectural obstructions. These features emphasize the country’s tremendous potential for utilizing solar and wind energy to cater to EV charging requirements.
This research work highlights several critical research issues. One major challenge is the integration of RES, such as solar and wind, with the existing grid infrastructure, which requires sophisticated technology and strategic planning. Ensuring grid stability and reliability with these intermittent energy sources is also a significant concern. Managing the fluctuating demand of EV loads, which can strain the grid, poses another challenge. The economic viability of such a system, considering initial setup costs, maintenance, and long-term benefits, must be thoroughly evaluated. Navigating the regulatory and policy framework in Saudi Arabia is essential for successful implementation. Additionally, technological adaptation to suit local climatic and geographical conditions is necessary. Comprehensive data collection and analysis are required for accurate system modeling and performance prediction. Public acceptance and support for renewable energy systems and EVs need to be addressed. Evaluating the environmental impact of deploying large-scale renewable energy systems is crucial. Finally, ensuring the system’s scalability to meet future increases in EV adoption and renewable energy production is a key consideration.
The key innovations and contributions of the present research are outlined in the following manner:
- (1)
Introducing a comprehensive and robust method for assessing the optimal layout and techno-economic optimization of a grid-connected renewable energy system for an eco-friendly EV charging station.
- (2)
Exploring the application of various algorithms to optimize a hybrid renewable energy-based EV charging station in Taif, SA. It includes a comprehensive comparative evaluation of these methods, focusing on their ability to improve the design and efficiency of EV charging stations. As a result, it contributes to the development of sustainable, eco-friendly, and economically viable charging solutions.
- (3)
The study analyzes the feasibility of implementing grid-tied solar- and wind-based electrical power production facilities with geographically specific meteorological information, as well as technical and monetary requirements, to provide trustworthy and affordable power for an EV charging station. In addition, the environmental viability of the suggested approach is evaluated using key emission characteristics.
- (4)
The study introduces the recently developed Pufferfish Optimization Algorithm (PFO) for optimizing various configurations of hybrid energy systems and implementing cost-effective energy scheduling, taking into account fluctuations in EV load demand.
The paper is organized into distinct sections. The methodology and detailed description of study location, RES and EV load data for the proposed research work is given in
Section 2. The modeling of various system components, specific objectives and limitations considered in the study, along with the strategies utilized to manage energy within the system effectively is provided in
Section 3. In
Section 4, the Pufferfish Optimization Algorithm is introduced, along with its application for optimizing the sizing of the charging system.
Section 5 presents the key findings and accomplishments. The conclusion is outlined in
Section 6.