Energy Security and Women’s Empowerment: A Generalized Method of Moments Approach from a Global Perspective

Abstract

The importance of energy security is emphasized in Goal 7 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda to guarantee that everyone has affordable, dependable, and contemporary energy access. In addition to transforming human life, whole economies, and even the planet, sustainable energy offers a chance for a better future. The absence of energy security impacts serious health problems, education, and household difficulties. Research on energy security has emphasized various angles worldwide. However, investigations of the impact of energy security on women’s empowerment are still scant. This study thus investigates the relationship between energy security and women’s empowerment (WE) in 167 countries from 2002 to 2021, as well as the influence of urbanization development levels on this nexus. Moreover, this study explores the variation in women’s empowerment between geographical regions by referencing the MENA, OECD, and SAARC countries. A two-step system GMM was used to achieve the objectives of this research. The findings show first that renewable energy availability has a significant effect on WE worldwide. Secondly, in terms of energy security, the variables total availability of natural resource rents and renewable energy both have a positive impact on women’s empowerment in the MENA, while in the OECD and SAARC countries, they have an indirect link with WE. Third, the integrating effect of total natural resource rents with urbanization significantly affects WE in all five models. Fourth, we used access to electricity to represent resource affordability. Unexpectedly, the results show its negative and significant association with WE. Fifth, in terms of energy security, both energy availability and affordability favor WE in OECD countries. Finally, the coefficient of integration of access to electricity and urbanization shows a positive and significant association with WE in the OECD, MENA, and SAARC regions. However, it is noteworthy to mention that access to electricity alone does not influence WE worldwide. Additionally, a series of tests confirm the robustness of the results. This research provides insight into the development and implications of energy security-related women’s empowerment policies.

1. Introduction

Energy security is defined as the accessibility and availability of energy at affordable prices for everyone (SDG). Energy is a necessary element not only for sustaining economic growth and human survival but also in terms of contributing to the stability of the political, economic, and social processes of a nation [1]. Energy plays a significant role in initiatives for sustainable development. Therefore, to create new concepts for energy development, countries are evaluating the existing energy systems to figure out if they are compatible with the aims of sustainable growth. The importance of energy security is emphasized in Goal 7 of the 17 goals of the 2030 Agenda to guarantee that everyone has affordable, dependable, and contemporary energy access. In addition to transforming human life, whole economies, and even the planet, sustainable energy offers a chance for a better future. Although countries have undertaken serious efforts to enhance energy security, the number of households with access to domestic electricity is predicted to reach 600 million by 2030 due to continuously increasing energy demand [2]. Lawmakers, researchers, and intellectuals are concerned about energy security since it is essential for improving people’s welfare. Globally, most countries lack adequate energy infrastructure, resulting in residents going without their basic energy needs being met and falling into energy scarcity. To enhance individual well-being, increasing energy security has become a top tactical concern worldwide.

Examining how energy security affects women’s empowerment, welfare, and public health, as well as figuring out the mechanisms involved, is crucial to achieving the SDGs and enhancing people’s quality of life. It has been argued that energy security, or the availability and affordability of energy, is an important factor in determining if individuals are classified collectively as energy poor [3]. Energy poverty refers to a lack of enough energy to meet basic needs, such as lighting and cooking [4,5]. Further, unreliable electricity supply, restrictions, urbanization, and high prices can threaten energy security, affecting livelihoods in many ways. The absence of energy security impacts women’s health, education, and household difficulties. Long-term energy poverty has serious impacts on health [6], education [7], the economy [8,9], and the environment [10,11].

Therefore, ensuring energy security is essential to attaining the SDGs, empowering women, and enhancing the quality of life for all. Although women’s empowerment has been the subject of substantial research for a long time, experts and researchers in energy security have not thoroughly examined the connection between women’s empowerment and energy security. This has significant importance for the well-being of individuals and is not just related to energy acquisition, consumption, and women’s empowerment. As a result, this study examines the influence of energy security on women’s empowerment and adds to the body of knowledge in the relevant domains.

This study provides an exhaustive overview of the key mechanisms and insights to enhance knowledge of the relationship between energy security and women’s empowerment. First, a restricted supply of electricity makes socioeconomic disparities worse. Lifestyle circumstances, such as food security, sanitary facilities, and the standard of housing, are impacted by inaccessible energy services. These elements have an impact on women’s empowerment and general well-being, as well as the onset and spread of illnesses and malnutrition. Moreover, behavioral and mental aspects may be impacted by energy deficiency [12]. For example, inadequate energy services limit lighting options, which limits nighttime business and educational operations. This may have negative effects on living standards, educational opportunities, and general well-being. Therefore, accessibility to electricity represents one of the energy security variables in this study.

Additionally, inefficient and polluting energy sources are readily available, resulting in a reliance on typical and toxic fuels, such as biomass and coal [11,13]. As a result of the combustion of these fuels, harmful pollutants are released into the atmosphere, potentially causing respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, and other adverse health outcomes [14,15]. On the other hand, as disclosed in Heckscher–Ohlin’s theory, abundant resources give countries a comparative advantage in international trade [16]. Therefore, the accessibility of energy is the main component of socioeconomic development. Considering this fact, we consider the total natural resource rents and renewable energy consumption to represent the accessibility of energy, and life expectancy to represent the healthy human capital in this study.

The influence of energy security on women’s empowerment may differ across high-income and urbanized nations because of the disparities in institutional environments, economic growth, and social structures. Even in low-income, low-urbanization nations, women’s empowerment may be negatively impacted by energy insecurity. Other challenges associated with urbanization include poor sanitation and water quality, problems with wastewater treatment, and other difficulties that might be substantially related to energy security [17]. Furthermore, higher urbanization rates are often associated with improved infrastructure service delivery and reasonably reliable and clean energy security [18,19]. The use of renewable energy during urbanization and updated energy infrastructure both enhance indoor air quality and lower the incidence of respiratory illnesses. Furthermore, improved access to healthcare, education, and employment possibilities are frequently brought about by urbanization and are advantageous for the empowerment of women.

Based on the discussion, there is a lack of studies investigating the impact of energy security on women’s empowerment and the transmission mechanisms between the two. In other words, what is the level of energy security on a global scale? What impact does it have on women’s empowerment? Are there regional variations concerning the MENA, OECD, and SAARC?

Thus, this study uses panel data covering 167 nations from 2002 to 2021 using the GMM model to investigate the transmission mechanisms and thoroughly analyze the link between women’s empowerment and energy security. First, the results show that energy accessibility impacts significantly influence women’s empowerment. Energy security can enhance the standard of living through increased education level; reduce the women’s household workload such as cleaning, washing, and cooking; and allow spending their time on entertainment, part-time or full-time work, and opening a new chapter for business opportunities. Second, urbanization levels can influence energy affordability and women’s empowerment. According to the GMM model, urbanization significantly increases women’s empowerment in developed countries. Moreover, we used the lagged values of the dependent and independent variables to address potential endogeneity issues in the relationship between energy security and women’s empowerment. Third, this research investigates how energy security affects various geographical areas, comparing the MENA, OECD, and SAARC with geographical and cultural differences in regions. The findings show that developed regions with affordable energy under the influence of urbanization offer a new avenue for enhancing women’s empowerment in those areas, whereas this effect is considerably smaller in the other regions. This research is a resource for developing and implementing policies about women’s empowerment and clean energy.

The following are the contributions our study brings in comparison to the literature. First, this study uses the GMM model, which has not been studied before, to look at the relationship between energy security and women’s empowerment from a global viewpoint. The paper adds to the body of research on the varied impacts of energy security on women’s empowerment through a comparative analysis of different regions. Second, this study fully considers how urbanization moderates the relationship between energy security and urbanization. It confirms that, because of urbanization development, women’s empowerment is primarily influenced by global energy security regardless of regional differences, a novel pathway that has not been suggested before. Moreover, we apply the lagged values of labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15–64) as the dependent variable; renewable energy consumption and the total natural resource rents are instrumental variables to represent the energy accessibility; access to electricity is representing the energy availability; the urban population is proxy for urban development; and GDP for income differentiation is taken into account in the estimation models. To represent human capital development, life expectancy is considered in this study. Moreover, regional cultural disparities have historically weighed heavily on women’s empowerment in many countries. As part of this study, the research sample is divided into MENA (OECD and SAARC) and non-MENA regions and is significantly heterogeneous based on urbanization development throughout the regions. In addition, we used dummies for MENA, OECD, and SAARC separately with other countries. Finally, in many countries, income disparity has long harmed women’s empowerment. This study offers fresh perspectives and approaches for a more thorough comprehension of how energy security affects women’s empowerment globally.

The primary conceptual framework of this study begins by reviewing the literature and providing some theoretical background on the relationship between energy security and women’s empowerment. Then, an in-depth investigation of the factors influencing energy security and women’s empowerment is explored. Next, an empirical analysis was conducted to explore the moderating effect of urbanization on the association between energy security and women’s empowerment. Moreover, a robustness test is conducted on the relevant empirical results based on regional and income heterogeneity. In conclusion, policy recommendations are proposed based on the above-mentioned discussions and analyses.

2. Literature

2.1. Energy Security and Women’s Empowerment

Researchers and policymakers have emphasized the importance of energy accessibility and affordability for women’s empowerment due to their potential impact on sustainable dimensions, the economy, the society, and the environment. Clean energy accessibility and affordability are expected to improve women’s empowerment via education, economic activities, and living standards, as well as reduce the reliance on fossil energy consumption, resulting in less disposal of harmful wastes and emissions. The International Energy Agency [20] defines energy accessibility as access to clean cooking facilities and power at a reasonable price, starting with a basic bundle of energy services and gradually increasing electricity to match the regional averages. IEA (2017) further reported that the availability of energy can indirectly affect income inequality through improvements in health, education, employment, gender equality, and agriculture. A study was carried out [21] to investigate the link between empowering women and providing them with cleaner stoves, cleaner fuels, and electricity data from 25,000 households from the World Bank Multi-Tier Framework survey across seven Asian and African countries. The women’s empowerment index was found to be correlated with energy access characteristics positively.

Similarly, Opoku et al. [22] investigated the connection between women’s access to contemporary, cheap, dependable, and renewable energy sources and women’s empowerment in involvement in government and decision making. Increased access to power and the efficient use of energy are positively correlated with the participation of women in national legislatures for 36 African countries.

Beru et al. [23] discovered that solar energy appears to have raised the standard of life for users and increased the involvement of women in decision-making processes in addition to their mobility, financial independence, and social engagement.

Another study [24] assessed how energy affordability affects income disparities for 166 nations between 1990 and 2017 using GMM. While access to modern, clean energy increases global wealth disparity, access to electricity decreases it. The findings also showed contemporary, clean energy availability; rural and urban electrification; moderate economic expansion; and education to reduce global income disparity. They further emphasized that access to energy may impact global wealth disparity through some possible avenues, including job creation, economic expansion, education, female empowerment, the industrial revolution, and healthcare. They urged that boosting access to energy is a prerequisite to reducing global economic disparity. Moreover, the focus ought to concentrate on developing suitable frameworks to open up trade for these technologies to support the cleaner energy revolution that is equitable for all. Moreover, the degree of female empowerment and other attributes, household features, regional ecological considerations, and distributor network connection influenced the clean fuel choice. A significant amount of biomass was used for cooking. Women’s empowerment has been shown to reduce this dependence [25].

However, a study [26] assessed how the county’s resource accessibility and revenue-generating operations affect empowering women in Makueni County. The study discovered that access to resources is negatively correlated with women’s empowerment, suggesting that for every unit of rise in resource accessibility, women’s empowerment falls by 0.152 units.

Thus, women’s empowerment can impact the acceptance and utilization of enhanced energy offerings; in turn, utilizing these enhanced services can elevate women’s status in society [21]. Theoretically, based on the channels of influence, access to energy could either upsurge or shrink women’s empowerment. In the discussion, we considered a few possible routes via which women’s empowerment may be impacted by energy access. Hence, this study intends to offer fresh perspectives and approaches for a more thorough comprehension of how energy security, energy accessibility, and affordability affects women’s empowerment globally. Therefore, we have formulated hypotheses as follows:

H1. 

Energy accessibility influences women’s empowerment.

H2. 

Energy Affordability Impacts women’s empowerment.

2.2. Energy Security and Urbanization to Women’s Empowerment

Developing countries undergo an intensified urbanization process as the world becomes increasingly globalized and industrialized [27]. This heightened urbanization has motivated increased research efforts dedicated to examining the effects of urbanization on green growth. A relatively small body of the literature is concerned with enhancing sustainable urbanization as a tool to support women’s empowerment [28,29,30]. Women’s participation in urban areas and energy policies can play a vital role in empowering women [31]. Some literature significantly explores the importance of the studies that link energy use to women’s empowerment [21,32]. Investigating the relationships between several facets of women’s empowerment, such as energy interventions and development, can help achieve gender equality [33]. This investigation better understands how women’s empowerment relates to the adoption of energy resources. Therefore, women’s roles need to be revised to ensure that energy transitions and urbanization move towards sustainable development.

However, contemporary, urbanized countries experience severe levels of inequality in living standards today. The most disadvantaged groups in societies that are impacted by extreme inequality are typically women. Currently, many women benefit economically and politically from the urbanization of societies and gain greater power, but many other countries continue to face problems at work, education, and politics [29]. Some studies focused on the effect of urbanization on women’s empowerment [34,35,36]. Dhamija et al. [37], using fixed effect estimation, examined the consequences of urbanization on women’s empowerment in India. The estimation shows no links between urbanization and women’s empowerment [37,38]. Therefore, the study suggests that women in urban areas have more social, economic, and political possibilities and freedoms than women in rural areas. Additionally, it indicates that obstacles to women’s empowerment are still pervasive in urban areas [37]. The findings of the study imply that the benefits of urbanization are gendered and that they gain relatively little from it.

Voumik et al. [39] involved different factors affecting women’s empowerment such as education, trade, economic growth, and urbanization in South Asian countries, and employed the ARDL model to examine the long- and short-term evaluations. The results show that urbanization has a negative coefficient for the short and long term, indicating that it has no beneficial effect on women’s empowerment. However, no attempt was made to address the issue in countries with different income levels. Conversely, Abdullah et al. [40] reported that women have more social, economic, and political options due to urbanization. To increase the empowerment of Pakistani women, rural areas should have access to the same options [40].

Together, these studies provide focal insights into the importance of energy use and urbanization to women’s empowerment. Specifically, almost all the empirical literature focuses on women’s empowerment measured by resource access instead of other concepts such as energy security, urbanization, and political power [41,42] This paper’s importance and originality are its attempts to assess the effect of energy security and urbanization on women’s empowerment, exploring the differences between regions and income levels. This current research also encompasses the literature by exploring the moderation effects of total natural resource rents, renewable energy, and access to electricity on women’s empowerment. Therefore, based on the existing studies, we developed the following research hypothesis. Figure 1 shows the relationship between the variables and the hypothesis development.

H3. 

Energy accessibility and urbanization development moderately affect women’s empowerment.

H4. 

Energy affordability and urbanization development moderately affect women’s empowerment.

H5. 

Energy security and urbanization explain the variation in women’s empowerment between geographical regions (MENA, OECD, and SAARC).

3. Methods and Materials

Across the globe, significant differences might exist in energy accessibility, affordability, urbanization, and economic status amongst geological regions. To extend the analysis, we also include regional dummy variables. Using regional dummy variables, we can control the heterogeneity of the sample based on the regional and income level characteristics. Consequently, we grouped the countries included in this study based on their geographical regions: MENA, OECD, and SAARC.

3.1. Data Definition and Source

The variables’ definition and their source which we used in this study are presented in

Table 1. Data definition.

Variables	Definition	Status
Women’s empowerment (WE)	Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15–64) (modeled ILO estimate)	Dependent Variable
Energy accessibility (TNR)	Total natural resource rents (% of GDP)	Independent Variable
Energy accessibility (RE)	Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption)	Independent Variable
Energy affordability (ELE)	Access to electricity, urban (% of urban population)	Independent Variable
Economic growth (GDP)	GDP per capita (constant 2017 PPP $)	Independent Variable
Urban development (URB)	Urban population (% of total population)	Moderating Variable
Life expectancy (LE)	Human capital	Control Variable
(TNR * lnURB)	Integration of total natural resource rents and urban development	Integrating Variable
(RE * lnURB)	Integration of renewable energy consumption and urban development	Integrating Variable
(AELE * lnURB)	Integration of access to electricity and urban development	Integrating Variable

.

3.2. Model Specification

Models 1–4 are measured using the GMM system in this study. Model 1 represents the base model, and models 2–4 represent the moderation impacts.

lnWEit = α0 lnWEit − 1 + β1 lnTNRit + β2 lnREit + β3 lnAELEit + β4 lnGDPit + β5 lnURBit + ∅1Xit + εit

(1)

lnWEit = α0 lnWEit − 1 + β1 lnTNRit + β2 lnREit + β3 lnAELEit + β4 lnGDPit + β5 lnURBit + δ1(TNR × lnURB)it + ∅1Xit + εit

(2)

lnWEit = α0 lnWEit − 1 + β1 lnTNRit + β2 lnREit + β3 lnAELEit + β4 lnGDPit + β5 lnURBit + δ2(RE × lnURB)it + ∅1Xit + εit

(3)

lnWEit = α0 lnWEit − 1 + β1 lnTNRit + β2 lnREit + β3 lnAELEit + β4 lnGDPit + β5 lnURBit + δ3(AELE × lnURB)it + ∅1Xit + εit

(4)

In the models, the subscripts i and t represent the country and time, respectively, and WE, women’s empowerment, stands as the dependent variable of this study. TNR, RE, ELE, GDP, and URB are the explanatory variables. ∅1Xit is life expectancy, which represents the control variable. The coefficients of the integrated variables are represented by δ.

3.3. Model Estimation

The study uses a Generalized Method of Moments (GMM), particularly useful for estimating dynamic panel data models, such as those involving lagged dependent variables and using instruments from past periods. GMM provides consistent estimates of parameters even in the presence of endogeneity if valid instruments are used. GMM allows for robust standard errors, which can be adjusted for heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation, leading to more reliable inferences. This method is suitable for estimating models with complex relationships and multiple endogenous variables, where traditional methods might fall short. GMM can handle over-identified models, where the number of instruments exceeds the number of endogenous variables, allowing for testing the validity of instruments through specification tests such as AR (1), AR (2), and Sargan over-identification test.

3.4. Sample Selection

We used data from 167 sample countries. The countries were selected based on the availability of the data. The list of the names of the countries is attached to Appendix A. The period from 2002 to 2021 was selected as it captures significant global and regional developments, including economic, social, and policy shifts. Despite the limited time range, this period provides sufficient variation across the states to explore the variables under investigation.

To further enhance the robustness of the analysis and address the high number of states, we have incorporated regional analysis using regional dummy variables (MENA, OECD, and SAARC). These variables account for regional heterogeneity by grouping states into relevant regions based on shared characteristics (e.g., economic development, geographical proximity, and political alignment). This approach allows us to control for region-specific effects, ensuring that our results reflect both within-region and between-region variations.

Time effects were also introduced in the model estimations. By incorporating time dummy effects, we control for year-specific influences that may affect all the states simultaneously, such as global economic crises or widespread policy reforms. This allows us to better isolate the effects of our main variables of interest while accounting for time-based fluctuations across the entire sample period.

We recognize the challenges of analyzing many states. The GMM is particularly useful for estimating dynamic panel data models, such as those involving lagged dependent variables and using instruments from past periods. GMM provides consistent estimates of parameters even in the presence of endogeneity, and incorporating regional and time dummy variables, we effectively manage time-based fluctuations across the entire sample period, and state-specific and regional heterogeneity. These methods ensure that the results remain robust despite the dimensionality in this study. Each state was included based on its relevance to the study’s scope. The use of regional dummy variables further allows us to group states with similar characteristics, thus reducing the complexity of the analysis while preserving the diversity required for meaningful insights.

Finally, this study also explored other alternatives, such as extending the time range (unfortunately, for many countries, the data were not available before 2002). However, the inclusion of regional dummy variables ensures a balance between geographical breadth and temporal depth, allowing for more nuanced insights without sacrificing statistical power.

4. Empirical Findings and Discussions

4.1. Impact of Basic Models

In this research, we assessed the link between energy accessibility, affordability, urbanization, economic status, and human capital development in women’s empowerment as presented in Formula (1), which points out that lnWE (−1) has a significant impact at 1% and illustrates that energy security has a notably positive influence on women’s empowerment (WE). Further, the empirical results show that renewable energy has a favorable effect on WE among the 167 countries. It means that a 1% increase in renewable energy would increase the FEM by 0.004%, while the availability of the total natural resource rent and access to electricity indirectly impact WE. Moreover, economic expansion, urbanization, and human development are in favor of WE globally. Increasing a percentage of economic expansion, urbanization, and human development increases WE by 0.001%, 0.013 ***, and 0.089%, respectively. Cui et al. [43] stated that resource constraints have increased the worldwide urgency of the shift to green energy. This could be a reason, for renewable energy has a positive relationship with WE worldwide in this study.

We further analyzed the same model considering a time dummy for the unexceptional worldwide financial crisis in 2017 (dt-6) and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 (dt-18). The result shows that unexpected events negatively impact the WE. We also considered taking regional differences from different cultures—MENA represents Arab culture, OECD represents Western culture, and SAARC represents women’s restricted culture. MENA and SAARC have a negative influence on WE. Interestingly, energy accessibility: the total availability of natural resource rents and renewable energy has a positive impact on women’s empowerment in MENA while natural resource rent has an indirect relationship with WE in OECD and SAARC. The possible reason could be due to a handful of available resources and income from the oil exports that could have contributed to women’s empowerment via obtaining education, good health facilities, and a standard of life in MENA. In contrast, SAARC countries are fewer developing countries with foreign debt dependency and other responsibilities such as providing education, irrigation, and infrastructure systems, and eliminating poverty, which could have limited the governments’ ability to pay total resource rents. This could have contributed to the negative relationship between WE and total resource rents. The worldwide financial crisis in 2017 and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 drastically reduced socioeconomic activities and focused on health services.

Meanwhile, access to electricity indirectly impacts WE globally. This result is like the findings of Mutua and Juster [26]. They found a negative relationship between WE and access to electricity and other resources in Makueni County. The high price of electricity could have contributed to less electricity consumption, this could have contributed to a negative relationship with WE. Another interesting empirical finding shows that OECD favors WE over the other countries as these countries support Hypothesis 1. OECD is considered advanced in education and technology, and free from cultural restrictions (refer to

Table 2. Results of the base model.

Variables	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 5
Constant	−0.085 ***	−0.098 ***	−0.130 ***	−0.013 ***	−0.072 ***
WLF(−1)	0.926 ***	0.928 ***	0.889 ***	0.926 ***	0.924 ***
Ln LNR	−0.001 ***	−0.001 ***	0.000 **	−0.000 ***	−0.001 ***
lnRE	0.004 ***	0.004 ***	0.000 ***	0.003 ***	0.004 ***
lnAELE	−0.015 ***	−0.015 ***	−0.027 ***	−0.014 ***	−0.012 ***
lnURB	0.013 ***	0.012 ***	0.0219 ***	0.008 ***	0.005 ***
lnLE	0.089 ***	0.094 ***	0.142 ***	0.075 ***	0.093 ***
lnGDP	0.001 ***	0.001 ***	0.000 ***	0.000 ***	0.000 ***
dt_6		−0.002 ***	−0.002 ***	−0.001 ***	−0.001 ***
dt_18		−0.018 ***	−0.016 ***	−0.017 ***	−0.018 ***
MENA			−0.082 ***
OECD				0.011 ***
SAARC					−0.035 ***
Time effect	YES	YES	YES	YES	YES
Number of instruments	177	179	180	180	180
Test for AR (1)	−4.47428 [0.0000]	−4.41252 [0.0000]	−4.38388 [0.0000]		−4.41552 [0.0000]
Test for AR (2)	−1.25283 [0.2103]			0	0
Sargan over-identification test	154.806 [0.7758]	161.088 [0.6557]	161.44 [0.6484]	161.182 [0.6538]	160.065 [0.6767]
Wald (joint) test p-value	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]
Number of countries	167	167	167	167	167

Note: *** = 1% and ** = 5% significant level.

, model 4).

4.2. Impact of Moderation Models

We extended our research further by including the moderation effect of the association of the total natural resource rent with urbanization on WE. We found that the availability of the total natural resource rents and renewable energy alone has a favorable effect on WE globally without any disparity. In the digital era, empowerment occurred globally. Women’s empowerment has greatly increased the socioeconomic status, well-being of the society, and human capital development as we all sustain the economic expansion of the nations. Therefore, to guarantee the countries’ energy security, it is imperative to enhance the growth of green energy, energy accessibility and its components, and energy utilization. This conclusion is corroborated by Opoku, Kufuor, and Manu [22]; Bera, Mishra, and Patnaik [23]; Acheampong, Dzator, and Shahbaz [24]; and Ghosh, Chatterjee, Paul, Ghosh, and Husain [25].

Unexpectedly, the moderation effect of the association of the total natural resource rents with urbanization and access to electricity still has an indirect link to WE among the 167 countries. Moreover, we have included a regional dummy again to examine the regional divergence. Meanwhile, the empirical finding shows that OCED is more favored towards WE than the other countries (refer to

Table 3. Moderation effect of total natural energy availability with urbanization on WE.

Variables	Model 1A	Model 2A	Model 3A	Model 4A	Model 5A
Constant	−0.083 ***	−0.096 ***	−0.121 ***	−0.014	−0.072 ***
WLF(−1)	0.926 ***	0.928 ***	0.892 ***	0.926 ***	0.925 ***
lnTNR	0.006 ***	0.007 ***	0.011 ***	0.007 ***	0.002 ***
lnRE	0.004 ***	0.004 ***	0.000 ***	0.003 ***	0.004 ***
lnAELE	−0.012 ***	−0.012 ***	−0.023 ***	−0.011 ***	−0.011 ***
LnURB	0.012 ***	0.011 ***	0.021 ***	0.008 ***	0.005 ***
lNLE	0.087 ***	0.089 ***	0.134 ***	0.073 ***	0.091 ***
lNGDP	0.000 ***	0.000 ***	0.000 ***	0.000 ***	0.000 ***
TNR * URB	−0.0019 ***	−0.0021 ***	−0.0026 ***	−0.0020 ***	−0.0026 ***
dt_6		−0.001 ***	−0.002 ***	−0.001 ***	−0.0009 ***
dt_18		−0.018 ***	−0.017 ***	−0.017 ***	−0.018 ***
MENA			−0.079 ***
OECD				0.011 ***
SAARC					−0.034 ***
Time effect	YES	YES	YES	YES	YES
Number of instruments	178	180		181	181
Test for AR (1)	−4.48168 [0.0000]	−4.41926 [0.0000]	−4.38769 [0.0000]	−4.41487 [0.0000]	−4.420 [0.000]
Test for AR (2)	−1.24544 [0.2130]	−1.25178 [0.2106]	−1.25191 [0.2106]	160.439 [0.6691]	−1.259 [0.2080]
Sargan over-identification test	154.674 [0.7781]	160.743 [0.6628]	161.708 [0.6428]	160.439 [0.6691]	160.176 [0.6744]
Wald (joint) test p-value	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]
Number of countries	167	167	167	167	167

Note: *** = 1% significant level.

, model 4).

Table 4. Empirical results with moderation effect of renewable energy with urbanization on WE.

Variables	Model 1B	Model 2B	Model 3B	Model 4B	Model 5B
Constant	−0.082 ***	−0.098 ***	−0.220 ***	−0.012	0.083 ***
WLF(−1)	0.926 ***	0.928 ***	0.900 ***	0.927 ***	0.926 ***
lnTNR	−0.001 ***	−0.001 ***	0.000 **	−0.001 ***	0.001 ***
lnRE	0.006 ***	0.004 **	0.032 ***	0.003	0.008 ***
lnAELE	−0.014 ***	−0.015 ***	−0.023 ***	−0.014 ***	−0.011 ***
LnURB	0.013 ***	0.011 ***	0.048 ***	0.010 ***	0.008 ***
lNLE	0.087 ***	0.093 ***	0.132 ***	0.100 ***	0.100 ***
lNGDP	0.000 ***	0.001 ***	0.001 ***	0.001 ***	0.001 ***
REN*URB	−0.0004	0.0001	−0.0075 ***	0.0002	−0.0008
dt_6		−0.002 ***	−0.002 ***	−0.002 ***	−0.002 ***
dt_18		−0.019 ***	−0.020 ***	−0.020 ***	−0.020 ***
MENA			−0.086 ***
OECD				0.011 ***
SAARC					−0.035 ***
Time effect	YES	YES	YES	YES	YES
Number of instruments	178	180	181	181	181
Test for AR (1)	−4.47448 [0.0000]	−4.4115 [0.0000]	−4.37111 [0.0000]	−4.40565 [0.0000]	−4.41544 [0.0000]
Test for AR (2)	−1.25223 [0.2105]	−1.26006 [0.2076]	−1.26714 [0.2051]	−1.25883 [0.2081]	−1.26432 [0.2061]
Sargan over-identification test	151.617 [0.8273]	159.897 [0.6801]	162.083 [0.6350]	159.596 [0.6861]	159.252 [0.6930]
Wald (joint) test p-value	[0.8273]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]
Number of countries	167	167	167	167	167

Note: *** = 1% and ** = 5% significant level.

shows the empirical results of the moderated effect of the association of renewable energy with urbanization on WE. We found that the effect of the accessibility of renewable energy and urbanization is not significant on WE globally except in MENA, but it has an indirect link to WE. Interestingly, the availability of renewable energy alone contributes to WE globally. Unexpectedly, the finding confirms that there is no association effect of renewable energy with urbanization on WE. However, access to electricity has an indirect link to WE among the 167 countries. Meanwhile, the empirical finding shows that OCED is more favored towards WE than the other countries (refer to model 4).

Table 5. Empirical results of moderation effect of access to electricity with urbanization on WE.

Variables	Model 1C	Model 2C	Model 3C	Model 4C	Model 5C
Constant	0.054 *	0.019	0.112 ***	0.071 ***	−0.005
WLF(−1)	0.927 ***	0.927 ***	0.887 ***	0.926 ***	0.924 ***
lnTNR	−0.001 ***	−0.001 ***	0.000	−0.000 ***	−0.001 ***
lnRE	0.005 ***	0.005 ***	0.001 ***	0.003 ***	0.004 ***
lnAELE	−0.037 ***	−0.035 ***	0.001 ***	0.003 ***	−0.024 ***
LnURB	−0.016 ***	−0.014 ***	−0.023 ***	−0.011 *	−0.010 *
lNLE	0.080 ***	0.085 ***	0.122 ***	0.071 ***	0.090 ***
lNGDP	0.001 ***	0.001 ***	0.000 ***	0.001 ***	0.001 ***
AELE * URB	0.0068 ***	0.0068 ***	0.0114 ***	0.0049 ***	0.0037 ***
dt_6		−0.001 ***	−0.002 ***	−0.001 ***	−0.001 ***
dt_18		−0.018 ***	−0.016 ***	−0.017 ***	−0.018 ***
MENA			−0.086 ***
OECD				−0.017 ***
SAARC					−0.035 ***
Time effect	YES	YES	YES	YES	YES
Number of instruments	178	180	181	181	181
Test for AR (1)	−4.47654 [0.0000]	−4.41197 [0.0000]	−4.37799 [0.0000]	−4.40712 [0.0000]	−4.41232 [0.0000]
Test for AR (2)	−1.25206 [0.2105]	−1.25966 [0.2078]	−1.26372 [0.2063]	−1.25945 [0.2079]	−1.26379 [0.2063]
Sargan over-identification test	150.472 [0.8439]	158.425 [0.7092]	158.446 [0.7088]	156.997 [0.7365]	156.446 [0.7467]
Wald (joint) test p-value	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]	[0.0000]
Number of countries	167	167	167	167	167

Note: *** = 1% and * = 10% significant level.

shows the empirical results of the moderation effects of access to electricity with urbanization on WE. The empirical results show that the moderation effects of access to electricity with urbanization are significant on WE in MENA, OECD, and SAARC. However, access to electricity alone does not have a favorable impact on SAARC. It could be attributed to more employment being created by urbanization, and there are greater options for women to start their enterprises and engage in labor markets. Better illumination and access to technology lead to improved learning and skill acquisition, as well as empowering women with information. Access to electricity enhances well-being and health by improving healthcare facilities and communication, which increases the knowledge of rights and possibilities. Electrical appliances also free up women’s time for personal development by reducing home tasks. Urban regions encourage social and cultural developments that advance gender equality, and policy and infrastructure development serve to further strengthen the empowerment of women. These elements work together to produce conditions that support women’s empowerment and well-being.

5. Conclusions and Policy Implications

This research assessed the relationship between energy accessibility, affordability, and urbanization and women’s empowerment in the first model. To achieve this, we formulated two hypotheses, H1: energy accessibility influences women’s empowerment. This study accepts the first hypothesis. Only renewable energy positively influences women’s empowerment in other countries. This finding is aligned with the findings of [22,23,24]. The other variables LnTNR and lnAELE have negative links with WE. H2: energy affordability impacts women’s empowerment. Moreover, the second hypothesis has been accepted in this study. However, it has a negative association with WE. Meanwhile, Acheampong, Dzator, and Shahbaz [24] found that access to electricity would reduce disparity among the 166 countries. According to our findings, it could be emphasized that enhancing the availability of renewable energy is important for economic growth, a clean environment, women’s empowerment, and human capital development. Therefore, policymakers should initiate more renewable energy production. Provide local and foreign investors subsidies, which is an easy process in green energy production. On the other hand, a tax should be imposed on fossil fuel consumption [44].

Secondly, this study intended to investigate the moderation effect of energy security and urbanization development on women’s empowerment. Unexpectedly, the integration effects of total resource rent with urbanization indirectly impact women’s empowerment in line with the outcome of [26]. However, the integration effects of renewable energy with urbanization are insignificant except for MENA. This finding is supported by Fang, Gozgor, Mahalik, Mallick, and Padhan [18] and Tiwari, Trabelsi, Abakah, Nasreen, and Lee [19]. This study accepts the third hypothesis H3: energy accessibility and urbanization development moderately affect women’s empowerment. It could be the possible reason that many of the countries might spend more resources on urban development. This might have reduced the availability of energy for WE. Moreover, high energy prices also could have contributed to reducing the purchasing power of the household. This would have accelerated the negative relationship. It could be suggested that policymakers should distribute the available energy to all the sectors, and ensure it is affordable for the low-income groups of households in the economies.

Thirdly, the integration of electricity access and urbanization has a direct relationship with WE. Here, H4: energy affordability and urbanization development moderately affect women’s empowerment. These findings are supported by [22,23,24]. Finally, this study explored the differences between regions (MENA, OECD, and SAARC) on energy security and women’s empowerment. To achieve the above-mentioned objective, we formulated hypothesis H5: energy security and urbanization explain the variation in women’s empowerment between geographical regions which has been accepted in this study.

The results of this research align with the broader literature on the intersection of energy access, affordability, urbanization, and women’s empowerment. The findings reveal that renewable energy positively impacts women’s empowerment, particularly in the MENA region, and support conclusions from previous studies [22,23,24]. For instance, research by [6,9,12,24] emphasized that access to renewable energy improves health, education, and economic opportunities for women, particularly in developing regions. By reducing the time women spend on domestic chores, access to clean energy frees up time for education and income-generating activities, a conclusion that our study corroborates. Additionally, authors [21,24] suggested that electrification directly enhances women’s participation in the labor force, a link also supported by our findings for renewable energy access.

Moreover, the acceptance of the hypothesis that energy affordability impacts women’s empowerment may seem to contrast with some studies, such as those by Mutua and Juster [26], who found that the high cost of energy access can be a barrier to empowerment. However, the present study suggests that affordability alone is insufficient to drive empowerment. This might align with the findings by Acheampong, Dzator, and Shahbaz [24] and Abdullah, Shoukat, and Chaudhary [40], who argued that accessibility and the nature of energy play a more crucial role than affordability in certain contexts, particularly in regions like MENA.

In addition, studies by Fang, Gozgor, Mahalik, Mallick, and Padhan [18] and Tiwari, Trabelsi, Abakah, Nasreen, and Lee [19] suggest that urbanization often leads to resource concentration in urban areas, potentially neglecting women in rural regions or informal settlements, which may explain the negative or insignificant impacts observed in our research. Furthermore, high urbanization can lead to higher energy costs and reduce household purchasing power, consistent with our findings. Finally, the conclusion that energy security and urbanization explain variations in women’s empowerment across regions (MENA, OECD, and SAARC) resonates with earlier studies by [41,42], who argue that regional socioeconomic, cultural, and political contexts significantly mediate the impact of energy policies on gender empowerment [40,41,42]. This finding emphasizes the need for region-specific approaches, as demonstrated in previous research focusing on the differential impact of energy policies across various global contexts.

Further, it could be suggested that women may gain a great deal from resource rents from natural resources being directed toward entrepreneurial, healthcare, and education initiatives. Policies should concentrate on enhancing the quality and dependability of the energy supply, ensuring that it results in improved possibilities for learning and commercial prospects for women, notwithstanding the negative association between women’s empowerment and access to electricity. It is essential to have integrated plans that deal with women’s empowerment and energy security. This might entail implementing laws that guarantee energy projects consider the unique requirements of women, such as making sure they are accessible and safe. Women will also be able to make better use of the energy resources that are available if specific initiatives, such as support groups and training programs, are put in place to mitigate the negative effects of the integration of energy security and access to power.

To make timely modifications and guarantee that policies continue to be sensitive to women’s demands, regular monitoring and evaluation procedures should be created to evaluate the impact of energy policies on women’s empowerment. Governments and organizations may successfully manage energy security and resource concerns while promoting women’s empowerment by concentrating on these policy implications. Moreover, policymakers should draw initiatives for effective resource management for human well-being, which is needed for the excessive exploration, mining, and consumption of material resources.

6. Limitations and Future Studies

This study did not take direct technology indicators. Future studies can concentrate on how household energy availability varies among regions and technologies in terms of women’s empowerment. This study included a dummy for only MENA, OECD, and SAARC. Future studies can focus on other regions such as African countries and Latin America. Future studies can consider using other measurement techniques such as novel Dynamic Autoregressive Distributed Lag (DYARDL) and Kernel-based Regularized Least Squares (KRLS) methods.