Innovative Approaches to Windcatcher Design: A Review on Balancing Tradition Sustainability and Modern Technologies for Enhanced Performance

Abstract

This review investigates the role of windcatchers in modern architecture, exploring their optimization through the integration of traditional designs with contemporary technologies. Historically utilized in hot and arid climates for passive cooling, windcatchers offer energy-efficient solutions for improving indoor air quality (IAQ). This study examines the sustainability of traditional windcatcher designs and their relevance in preserving heritage structures. Using advanced tools like computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling, modern adaptations of windcatchers can be optimized for urban environments. This review also explores hybrid systems, combining windcatchers with solar chimneys, evaporative cooling, or heat pumps, to enhance performance in low-wind conditions by balancing natural and mechanical ventilation. Additionally, it addresses the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in heritage planning, facilitating the design and integration of windcatchers into contemporary architecture. The findings suggest that windcatchers, combined with modern design strategies and hybrid systems, continue to be viable and sustainable solutions for passive cooling, contributing to energy-efficient and climate-resilient buildings across different environmental and urban contexts.

1. Introduction

Windcatchers, also known as badgirs, have been integral in traditional architecture in hot and arid climates for centuries. These passive cooling systems utilize natural ventilation to reduce indoor temperatures, providing a sustainable alternative to mechanical ventilation systems. Historically, windcatchers have been particularly effective in regions such as the Middle East and North Africa, where high temperatures and low humidity levels necessitate efficient cooling solutions [1,2]. As modern societies face increasing environmental concerns and rising energy consumption, exploring traditional sustainable practices, such as windcatchers, has become crucial in addressing these challenges [3,4].

Traditional windcatchers face significant challenges in modern urban environments, primarily due to the shift towards contemporary architectural practices that prioritize mechanical ventilation systems over passive cooling techniques. The abandonment of vernacular architecture, including windcatchers, is driven by urbanization and the adoption of Western architectural styles, which often overlook the environmental benefits of traditional designs [5,6]. Moreover, modern urban settings often lack the spatial configurations necessary for effective windcatcher functionality, such as open courtyards and appropriate wind channels, which are essential for maximizing airflow [7]. The integration of windcatchers into contemporary buildings is further complicated by regulatory frameworks that favor modern construction methods and materials, which may not accommodate the unique structural requirements of windcatchers [8]. Recent architectural research has focused on revisiting and optimizing these traditional systems to meet contemporary needs. Traditional windcatchers, while effective, face limitations in low wind conditions, dense urban environments, and polluted areas [9,10,11]. In these settings, windcatchers struggle to maintain airflow and may be susceptible to infiltration by dust and insects [12]. Additionally, the advent of new technologies and increasing demand for energy-efficient solutions in modern cities call for the evolution of windcatcher designs. Consequently, researchers are now investigating how to adapt and enhance windcatcher performance through innovative methods, such as integrating hybrid systems, optimizing design configurations, and utilizing computational tools [13,14,15].

Several studies have highlighted the potential for combining traditional windcatcher designs with modern advancements. For instance, integrating CFD modeling into windcatcher design has proven instrumental in optimizing configurations based on specific environmental conditions [9,16]. Similarly, hybrid systems that combine windcatchers with other passive technologies, such as solar chimneys or evaporative cooling systems, have improved performance, particularly in regions with low wind velocities or extreme heat [17,18]. Additionally, AI has emerged as a valuable tool in analyzing and planning heritage preservation, offering insights into how traditional systems can be revitalized in modern settings [3,4]

Despite these advances, there remains a need to synthesize existing knowledge on windcatcher optimization and comprehensively review traditional and modern approaches to enhance their performance. The scope of this review is to explore the sustainability of windcatchers, examine their integration with contemporary technologies, and assess their potential to meet modern energy efficiency standards [3,11]. This review also analyzes windcatchers’ challenges and limitations in today’s urban environments and highlights potential strategies to overcome these issues [11,19].

Despite these hurdles, there is a growing recognition of the potential for windcatchers to contribute to sustainable architecture, particularly in regions facing climate challenges, suggesting a need for innovative designs that merge traditional principles with modern technology [2,20].

The principal objectives of this review are twofold: first, to investigate how traditional windcatchers can be optimized for use in modern architectural settings, and second, to assess the potential benefits of integrating hybrid systems and advanced computational tools into windcatcher design [4,11]. This review hypothesizes that, with modern adaptations and hybrid systems, windcatchers can be as effective and sustainable in modern contexts as they were in traditional settings, mainly when designed to suit specific environmental and urban conditions [3,4,19].

In summary, the findings of this review will contribute to the growing body of literature on sustainable building design by offering a detailed examination of how traditional windcatcher systems can be adapted to meet contemporary needs. By integrating traditional elements with modern technologies, windcatchers hold the potential to play a significant role in achieving energy-efficient and environmentally sustainable architecture, especially in regions facing extreme climates and growing energy demands [3,4,11].

1.1. Theoretical Background

Reviewing previous studies highlights a growing interest in integrating traditional windcatcher technologies into modern architectural practices. Figure 1 demonstrates the various styles of windcatchers, and Figure 2 gives information about the different features of conventional windcatchers. This approach emphasizes their historical significance and potential for sustainability in contemporary contexts. The following discussion analyzes the key findings from the reviewed literature.

1.2. Sustainability and Preservation of Traditional Windcatchers

Saradj (2008) [10,23] emphasized the sustainability of traditional windcatchers, which have historically reduced energy consumption in hot and arid climates. Diverse designs of traditional windcatchers are shown in Figure 3. The study demonstrates that windcatchers improve thermal comfort and contribute to the preservation of historic structures. This dual benefit presents a unique opportunity to restore windcatchers as functional elements in modern architecture, aligning with energy efficiency and cultural heritage preservation. The results of Saradj’s (2008) [20,23] suggested that integrating traditional windcatchers into contemporary architectural practices could bridge the gap between modern needs and regional sustainable design traditions. This integration would support the long-term sustainability of the built environment and the conservation of architectural heritage. Additionally, the adaptive reuse of cultural heritage buildings has been identified as a strategy to reduce material demand and embodied energy [24]. Furthermore, the conservation of architectural heritage is essential for maintaining local identity and cultural diversity [25,26]. The integration of digital technologies in heritage conservation can enhance the effectiveness of these efforts [27,28].

1.3. Integration of Modern Technologies with Windcatcher Systems

Sangdeh and Nasrollahi (2022) [2,30] focused on the potential of integrating windcatchers into modern architectural designs, particularly in hot and arid climates. Their findings suggest that windcatchers can be optimized by carefully selecting types and configurations, shown in Figure 4, tailored to the specific environmental and urban context. The study also highlights the benefit of using advanced technologies such as CFD to optimize the design of windcatchers. CFD modeling allows architects to simulate airflow patterns and evaluate the performance of windcatchers under varying conditions, ultimately improving their effectiveness in different settings [21]. This integration of traditional design with modern technologies offers promising opportunities to enhance natural ventilation and reduce reliance on mechanical cooling systems [20]. Furthermore, the application of CFD in evaluating windcatcher performance can lead to innovative solutions that address the challenges posed by urban density and climate change [21]. The combination of traditional architectural elements with cutting-edge technology not only preserves cultural heritage but also promotes sustainable building practices [20].

1.4. Hybrid Systems and Windcatcher Performance

Saadatin et al. (2012) [29,31] presented a balanced view of the advantages and limitations of windcatchers. While windcatchers provide an eco-friendly alternative to mechanical cooling, they face specific challenges, including difficulty controlling airflow and susceptibility to dust and insects. Moreover, windcatcher performance tends to decline in low-wind environments. However, the study identifies the potential of hybrid systems, where windcatchers are combined with other passive technologies, such as solar chimneys or evaporative cooling, as demonstrated in Figure 5. These hybrid systems offer a promising solution for balancing natural ventilation with mechanical assistance, improving overall performance, particularly in conditions where traditional windcatchers may fall short. The findings suggest that hybrid systems can enhance the resilience of buildings to varying climatic conditions while maintaining energy efficiency.

1.5. Artificial Intelligence in Heritage Planning

Foroughi et al. (2024) [32,33] introduced the innovative application of AI, particularly Natural Language Processing (NLP), in heritage planning. The study demonstrates that AI can systematically analyze expert opinions on the cultural significance of heritage elements, helping to streamline the decision-making process in heritage preservation. This approach saves time and resources and allows for more comprehensive analysis by considering relationships among attributes and values. By applying AI in this context, planners can make more informed policy decisions and ensure heritage elements like windcatchers are appropriately valued and preserved in modern designs. Integrating AI into heritage planning reflects a forward-thinking approach to balancing tradition with contemporary needs.

Overall, the reviewed studies highlight the potential of traditional windcatchers to contribute to sustainable architectural practices, particularly when integrated with modern technologies and hybrid systems. As Nejat (2023) [20] discussed, the restoration of windcatchers aligns with energy efficiency and heritage preservation. Sangdeh and Nasrollahi (2022) [2,30] emphasized the importance of technological advancements like CFD modeling to enhance windcatcher performance. Hybrid systems, as proposed by [31], offer a solution to the limitations of traditional windcatchers, particularly in low-wind environments. Finally, Balabel et al. (2021) [33] introduced AI to enhance heritage planning, ensuring that conventional elements like windcatchers are effectively integrated into modern, sustainable architectural designs. These studies suggest that traditional windcatchers hold significant promise for sustainable building solutions in various climates and urban contexts when combined with modern innovations. Furthermore, the integration of heritage elements into urban regeneration strategies can foster community engagement and enhance local identity [34,35]. The application of AI in cultural heritage management can also facilitate better preservation practices and promote cultural diversity [36,37].

2. Materials and Methods

The methodology for this research followed a systematic approach based on Data Extraction and Synthesis to ensure a comprehensive analysis of the existing literature on windcatcher technology. The research process involved the collection, extraction, and synthesis of data from academic articles focused on windcatchers, leveraging multiple databases to cover a broad spectrum of research. The approach was designed to categorize and evaluate existing studies, identify gaps in the literature, and propose future research directions.

2.1. Data Collection

A comprehensive literature search was conducted across various academic databases, including but not limited to Google Scholar, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science. The search term used was “windcatcher”, either in the title or as a keyword. Including the term as a keyword ensured that studies addressing windcatchers as part of more extensive research on natural ventilation and passive cooling systems were also included.

Only peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, and technical reports published in English were considered to ensure the search was comprehensive and relevant. The search was limited to articles published between 2000 and 2024 to capture contemporary and historical perspectives on windcatcher design and application. The total number of journal articles collected was 38.

2.2. Data Extraction

The articles retrieved were subjected to a systematic data extraction process designed to standardize the information for subsequent synthesis and analysis. Each article was reviewed, and data were extracted based on the following predefined categories:

• Title: The title of each article was recorded to provide a clear indication of the research focus;
• Citation: Full citation details, including authors, publication year, journal name, and DOI (if available), were recorded for referencing and reproducibility purposes;
• Area of Research: Each article was classified based on its area of research. The areas for research identified in the extracted studies were categorized as follows:
• Purpose: Each study’s objectives or hypotheses were extracted to understand the research questions driving the investigation;
• Scope: The scope of each article was noted, indicating whether the research focused on a particular geographical region, a specific windcatcher design, or a particular climate type;
• Methods: The methodologies employed in each study, such as experimental designs, computational simulations (CFD), energy modeling, or case studies, were extracted to assess the validity and reliability of the results;
• Results: Key findings from each study were extracted, including performance data such as airflow efficiency, cooling potential, or energy savings related to windcatcher designs;
• Discussion Points: The key discussion themes of each article were noted to capture the main conclusions drawn by the authors, along with any novel insights or technological advancements;
• Limitations: Each article’s limitations, as acknowledged by the authors, were extracted to identify potential gaps in the research, such as limitations in experimental design, geographical constraints, or modeling assumptions;
• Implications for Future Research: Future research directions suggested by the authors were captured to help guide the design of new studies that address the identified gaps and limitations in the literature.

2.3. Selection Criteria for Articles

• Articles were screened based on the title and abstract to assess relevance;
• Full texts of selected articles were reviewed against the inclusion criteria;
• Only articles meeting all criteria were included for detailed analysis.

2.4. Data Synthesis

Once the data were extracted, a thematic synthesis was conducted. Articles were categorized into thematic clusters based on their focus, particularly within the identified areas of research:

• Traditional Windcatchers: Evaluating the performance of historical designs and their modern-day applications;
• Windcatcher Configuration and Geometry: Investigating how changes in shape and structure, such as height, width, and internal chamber design, impact airflow and cooling efficiency;
• Windcatcher Louvers: Examining the role of louvers in controlling airflow and enhancing natural ventilation efficiency;
• Wing Walls of Windcatchers: Exploring adding wing walls to optimize air capture and improve windcatcher performance;
• Hybrid Systems: Analyzing how windcatchers can be integrated with other systems such as solar chimneys, evaporative cooling, or mechanical ventilation to enhance the overall energy efficiency of buildings.

Each thematic group was critically evaluated to compare methodologies, results, and implications. The synthesis aimed to identify patterns across studies, including common findings related to energy efficiency and IAQ improvements. It also sought to highlight areas where the research diverged, such as the differences in the applicability of windcatchers across various climates and building types.

2.5. Evaluation and Critical Analysis

The evaluation involved assessing the rigor of the methodologies used in each study. Key metrics such as airflow rates, cooling potential, and energy savings were compared across studies. Limitations identified in the articles were analyzed to refine the research methodology for future studies, mainly focusing on how computational modeling and real-world applications could be further integrated.

2.6. Implications for Future Research

The synthesis of the extracted data highlighted several critical areas for future research. These included:

• Expanding the geographical scope of windcatcher studies to understand performance in various climate zones;
• Integrating new technologies, such as intelligent control systems and sensors, with traditional windcatcher designs to enhance energy efficiency;
• Further developing hybrid systems that combine windcatchers with other renewable energy technologies, such as solar chimneys or evaporative cooling;
• Conducting more studies on windcatcher geometry, louvers, and wing walls, exploring how these factors can be optimized for better performance across different building types and climates.

The insights gained from this synthesis will help inform future research directions and contribute to the ongoing development of sustainable building technologies, particularly in hot, arid climates.

This structured methodology ensures a systematic and comprehensive review of windcatcher literature, providing a foundation for future work in passive cooling technologies.

3. Results

The results of this research are categorized into five main areas that highlight the performance and adaptability of windcatchers in modern architectural applications. First, traditional windcatchers demonstrate significant potential in enhancing natural ventilation and energy efficiency. Second, the configuration of windcatchers plays a crucial role in optimizing airflow and thermal comfort. Third, the design and placement of windcatcher louvers improve IAQ and reduce energy consumption. Fourth, integrating wing walls into windcatcher design enhances performance, particularly in low wind speed and urban environments. Fifth is the hybrid system, which incorporates synergies of passive cooling strategies that enhance the performance of find catchers. These findings emphasize the relevance of windcatchers in promoting sustainable architecture.

3.1. Traditional Windcatchers

The studies reviewed provided valuable insights into traditional windcatcher technology’s performance, sustainability, and challenges. These passive cooling systems, which have been used for centuries, are now being adapted to modern settings, showcasing their potential for reducing energy consumption, improving thermal comfort, and promoting environmental sustainability. For instance, Khan (2022) [38] utilized CFD techniques to simulate airflow and thermal conditions in traditional Omani houses, demonstrating how these models can inform the design of windcatchers in similar climatic contexts.

Ma’bdeh et al. (2022) [39] demonstrated window-windcatchers’ effectiveness in hot climates like Amman in Jordan (see Figure 6). Their study highlighted that window-windcatchers significantly enhance natural ventilation while reducing cooling energy consumption. This makes them an attractive passive cooling solution for residential buildings aiming for energy efficiency and sustainability. The study further emphasized the economic benefits, noting energy, cost savings, and improved thermal comfort. These findings illustrate the potential of adapting traditional windcatcher designs for modern residential applications, especially in regions facing high temperatures and rising energy costs. The work of Zhong et al. (2019) [40] further illustrated the application of CFD in predicting convective heat transfer on building surfaces, which is crucial for assessing the performance of windcatchers in various environments. Moreover, the research by [41] emphasized the optimization of window positions for maximizing natural ventilation, showcasing how CFD simulations can directly influence architectural design decisions.

Similarly, Cohan et al. (2024) [42] presented windcatchers as a viable zero-energy cooling solution, particularly in the United Arab Emirates’ (UAE) hot and arid climate. As demonstrated in Figure 7, the study emphasized the significant environmental and cost benefits of incorporating windcatchers into modern architecture. Beyond their energy efficiency, Cohan et al. highlighted the cultural importance of windcatchers, framing their integration as a way to blend traditional sustainability practices with modern environmental goals. This dual benefit of cultural preservation and reduced energy consumption makes windcatchers a compelling addition to contemporary architectural designs, especially in regions with a strong historical connection to these systems.

Mavrogianni and Mumovic (2009) [43] explored the application of windcatchers in educational settings, particularly schools, located at an urban site in London. Their study, depicted in Figure 8, confirmed that windcatchers can provide adequate ventilation and thermal comfort under current climate conditions. However, they cautioned that future climate scenarios with increasing temperatures may demand adaptation strategies such as night ventilation or mixed-mode systems. A key finding of the study was the importance of occupant behavior and control in ensuring the efficient operation of windcatcher systems. Manual and automated control systems must be better integrated into windcatcher designs to optimize performance, especially in environments like schools, where user interaction is a significant factor.

Similarly, Moghaddam et al. (2011) [44] highlighted the effectiveness of windcatchers in modern public buildings located in Yazd, Iran, in particularly hot and arid climates (Figure 9). They emphasized that optimizing the placement and size of windcatcher openings is crucial to achieving efficient natural ventilation. While windcatchers offer a simple, passive cooling solution, the study stressed that careful planning and design are essential to meet thermal comfort standards. This suggests that modern design considerations are necessary to maximize their benefits even with traditional systems like windcatchers.

Ahmed et al. (2021) [45] pointed out the limitations of windcatchers in extreme heat and polluted environments, where their effectiveness decreases. The study suggested that combining windcatchers with other passive cooling techniques, such as evaporative cooling, could enhance resilience in response to future climate scenarios. This hybrid approach would reduce dependence on mechanical cooling systems while maintaining energy efficiency and thermal comfort in challenging environmental conditions. Ahmed et al.’s (2021) [45] findings underlined the need for flexibility in windcatcher design, particularly in regions facing extreme climate variability or pollution, as shown in Figure 10.

Zaki and Sharma (2023) [48] examined the impact of surrounding buildings and wind direction on windcatchers’ performance in New Zealand urban settings, as shown in Figure 11. Their study revealed that surrounding structures can significantly reduce cross-ventilation effectiveness by altering airflow patterns and increasing pressure fluctuations. However, despite these challenges, windcatchers remained effective at capturing ventilation in urban contexts. The study also highlighted the sensitivity of windcatcher performance to wind direction, with direct wind incidences yielding the best results. In contrast, oblique winds, particularly at 40° and 140° angles, showed the most significant reduction in ventilation efficiency due to disruptions caused by nearby buildings. These findings emphasize the importance of considering the urban environment and wind direction when designing and positioning windcatchers in densely built areas.

The potential impact of windcatchers on architectural heritage and cultural identity is significant, particularly in regions where traditional designs are integral to local culture. Windcatchers, as vernacular architectural elements, embody the climatic adaptation strategies of specific cultures, reflecting their historical and environmental contexts [13]. In places like Iran and the Arabian Gulf, these structures are not merely functional; they symbolize cultural identity and heritage, serving as a testament to the ingenuity of local communities in addressing environmental challenges [49].

Moreover, the revival and integration of windcatchers into contemporary architecture can enhance cultural sustainability by preserving traditional knowledge while adapting to modern needs. This approach aligns with the principles of cultural heritage preservation, which emphasize the importance of maintaining local architectural styles and practices in the face of globalization [50,51]. For instance, the incorporation of windcatchers into modern designs can foster a sense of continuity and identity, bridging the past with the present [13].

3.2. Windcatcher Configuration and Performance

The studies reviewed provided critical insights into how windcatchers’ configuration influences their performance in various environmental and urban contexts. These findings suggest that optimizing windcatchers’ geometric parameters and airflow mechanisms can significantly enhance their ability to provide natural ventilation and improve IAQ, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency. Furthermore, the application of AI in conjunction with CFD modeling enables architects to simulate various design scenarios, facilitating informed decision-making during the design process [52].

Su et al. (2008) [53] found that the effect of wind direction on windcatcher performance is relatively minor compared to other factors, such as room pressure. Their research suggests room pressure is critical to ventilation performance, particularly at low wind speeds (Figure 12). This finding highlights the need for windcatcher designs to consider room pressure dynamics, as optimizing pressure differentials can enhance airflow efficiency. Furthermore, they pointed out that measurement sensitivity, particularly in low wind speeds, can affect the accuracy of performance assessments, suggesting that more precise instruments like manometers are essential for evaluating windcatcher configurations in low-pressure environments.

Jones and Kirby (2009) [54] provided insight into the loss coefficients of windcatcher ducts, noting that the extract ducts experience higher loss coefficients than supply ducts, likely due to increased friction and interference between supply and extract flows [55]. This issue can reduce the system’s efficiency, particularly in larger structures. To address this, the authors proposed a simplified linear relationship between wind speed and windcatcher volume flow rate, which can help design windcatcher systems for practical applications. As demonstrated in Figure 13, the proposed model neglects buoyancy effects for wind speeds above two m/s, suggesting that windcatcher systems can rely primarily on wind-driven forces for adequate ventilation at moderate to high wind speeds.

Varela-Boydo et al. (2020) [11] explored the impact of funnel design on windcatcher performance, finding that the dimensions of the funnels significantly influence airflow rates. Their study suggested that shorter egress funnels and longer ingress funnels improve performance by optimizing airflow patterns, as shown in Figure 14. However, vortex formation at the funnel openings presents a challenge, as it can reduce airflow efficiency. This indicates the need for further optimization in funnel design to minimize turbulence and improve overall system performance. The research highlighted the potential for geometric modifications to enhance traditional windcatcher designs for better airflow control.

Obeidat et al. (2023) [56] emphasized the importance of optimizing geometric parameters to improve the efficiency of windcatcher systems. Their study demonstrated that specific design modifications, such as the size and shape of the windcatcher, can significantly enhance natural ventilation and thermal comfort without the need for mechanical ventilation. As demonstrated in Figure 15, by focusing on the geometric aspects of windcatcher configurations, this research contributed to a growing body of knowledge that supports using passive ventilation systems as a sustainable alternative to energy-intensive mechanical systems.

The integration of windcatchers into modern urban environments was explored by [40,57]. Ma’bdeh et al. [38] suggested that windcatchers could be a vital tool in reducing cooling loads in modern Central European cities, where rising temperatures due to climate change drive demand for sustainable cooling solutions. Alrebei et al. (2022) [57] focused on the windcatcher wall chimney (WWC) device, which enhances natural ventilation while improving thermal comfort and IAQ (See Figure 16). The study highlighted that the WWC can potentially reduce airborne pathogens, such as SARS-CoV-2, by maintaining higher ventilation rates and reducing turbulence. These findings underscore the potential for windcatchers to adapt to modern health and environmental challenges while continuing to provide energy-efficient cooling.

Balabel et al. (2021) [32] illustrated how advanced technologies, such as CFD coupled with fuzzy logic controllers, can significantly improve the design and operation of windcatchers (see Figure 17). The study demonstrated that an innovative internal design featuring a converging nozzle shape increases airflow velocity and improves indoor air distribution. This approach highlights the importance of using modern simulation tools [57] Elhassan (2023) to optimize windcatcher performance in complex building environments, ensuring efficient ventilation and comfort.

Similarly, Li et al. (2024) [26] presented the rotary scoop windcatcher as a more adaptable solution for urban areas with inconsistent wind conditions in Dalian, China (Figure 18). This design is more reliable than traditional windcatchers because it adjusts to varying wind directions, improving its ability to capture airflow and provide ventilation in challenging environments. The rotary scoop model also integrates passive cooling and heat recovery technologies, making it a low-energy alternative to conventional HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems in climates where natural ventilation is a feasible solution.

3.3. Windcatcher Louvers

The design and configuration of louvers in windcatcher systems play a crucial role in enhancing ventilation performance, improving IAQ, and reducing energy consumption. The reviewed studies provide valuable insights into how louver modifications can optimize airflow, making windcatchers more effective in traditional and modern architectural applications.

In Hong Kong, China, Liu et al. (2011) [30] found that windcatcher systems’ effectiveness can be significantly improved by optimizing louver configurations and strategically placing windows. Their research highlighted that louvers are crucial for directing airflow and maintaining consistent ventilation under various wind conditions (see Figure 19). In particular, the study suggested that installing a damper or egg crate grill at the terminal of the windcatcher enhances uniform airflow distribution, especially in high wind conditions. This configuration prevents excessive airflow or turbulence that could disrupt the stability of the indoor environment. By controlling airflow more effectively, the windcatcher becomes more adaptable to fluctuating wind speeds, making it a reliable solution for natural ventilation.

The findings from Liu et al. [30] emphasized the importance of carefully configuring louvers to ensure airflow remains consistent and evenly distributed throughout the indoor space. This is especially important in high wind conditions, where unregulated air movement can lead to uncomfortable indoor climates or inefficient ventilation. Introducing airflow regulators like dampers allows for better control over the ventilation process, ultimately enhancing the comfort and sustainability of the system.

Yang et al. (2020) [58] extended the discussion on louver optimization by introducing the concept of airfoil-shaped louvers. Their study revealed that louvers designed with an airfoil shape can significantly improve natural ventilation efficiency by optimizing airflow speed and reducing indoor pollutant levels (see Figure 20). This design approach enhances the aerodynamic properties of the louvers, allowing them to direct airflow more effectively and reduce the buildup of stagnant air, which can trap pollutants.

The airfoil-shaped louvers not only improve the overall performance of the windcatcher but also reduce the reliance on mechanical ventilation systems. By optimizing airflow speed, the need for energy-consuming mechanical systems is diminished, resulting in lower energy consumption and a more sustainable building operation. Additionally, improved airflow through the building helps to maintain higher IAQ by constantly refreshing the air and minimizing the accumulation of pollutants [59].

Yang et al.’s (2020) [58] study highlighted the importance of integrating advanced louver designs into windcatcher systems to meet modern building standards for energy efficiency and IAQ. By using airfoil-shaped louvers, architects can enhance windcatchers’ natural ventilation capabilities, making them more effective in a broader range of environments, including those with high pollution levels or where energy conservation is a priority.

3.4. Windcatchers with Wing Walls

Wing walls integrated with windcatchers have been shown to significantly enhance natural ventilation performance, particularly in low wind speed conditions and dense urban environments. Several studies have focused on optimizing the geometry and configuration of wing walls to maximize airflow efficiency, IAQ, and thermal comfort in various climatic conditions.

Abdelhady (2021) [60] examined the effect of lengthening the top roof of windcatchers as another geometric modification to improve performance (see Figure 21). The study showed that by increasing the length of the top roof, IAQ could be significantly enhanced due to increased airflow and reduced air stagnation. This design modification was beneficial in densely built urban environments, where airflow is often restricted. Abdelhady proposed a regression equation to predict the relationship between top roof length and air velocity, offering a practical tool for optimizing windcatcher designs to achieve better natural ventilation in various settings.

Nejat et al. (2016) [2] further supported these findings by demonstrating that wing walls can significantly enhance the performance of windcatchers, particularly in regions with consistently low wind speeds. Their study introduced the “Traditional Windcatcher with Integrated Wing Wall” (TWIW) design, which provides superior natural ventilation and IAQ compared to conventional windcatchers, as shown in Figure 22. The TWIW design is shown to be an effective passive cooling strategy for tropical climates, where mechanical cooling systems are energy-intensive and less sustainable. This design improves airflow and ensures better distribution of fresh air throughout indoor spaces, contributing to more comfortable and Windcatchers Meeting American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standards.

Additionally, Nejat et al. (2016b) [61] found that integrating wing walls into windcatchers allows these systems to meet and, in some cases, exceed ASHRAE ventilation standards regarding air change rates. This makes the TWIW design a viable alternative for passive ventilation in climates with low wind speeds, where traditional windcatchers might not perform as well. This research demonstrated that with appropriate geometric optimizations, windcatchers can provide adequate ventilation without relying on energy-intensive mechanical systems, making them a sustainable solution for both residential and public buildings.

Nejat et al. (2016b) [61] further reinforced that wing walls are particularly beneficial in regions with specific wind patterns. By optimizing the angle and orientation of the wing walls, windcatchers can be more efficient at capturing and directing wind, even in locations where natural ventilation might be challenging. Their research highlighted that adjusting wing wall angles according to the predominant wind directions in a given region is essential to maximize airflow efficiency and improve IAQ.

Nejat et al. (2018) [20] demonstrated that integrating wing walls with windcatchers can significantly improve ventilation in regions with low wind velocities (see Figure 23). Their findings highlighted the importance of optimizing the length of wing walls to ensure maximum airflow and adequate natural ventilation. The study suggested that shorter wing walls are more suitable for enhancing ventilation performance in dense urban environments or regions with lower wind speeds. This is because shorter wing walls allow better airflow capture and distribution without being overly obstructive, making them particularly effective in confined urban settings where wind patterns are more variable due to surrounding structures.

The research pointed to the necessity of fine-tuning wing wall lengths based on the specific environmental and urban conditions in which the windcatcher is implemented. By doing so, buildings can maintain adequate ventilation and IAQ even in less favorable wind conditions.

Nejat et al. (2024) [48] expanded on the previous research by examining the performance of windcatchers with upward wing walls (UWWs), shown (see Figure 24) to be particularly effective at capturing wind and improving ventilation at optimal angles. The study found that an angle of 30° is ideal for maximizing airflow and ventilation efficiency. However, they also noted that larger angles can hinder airflow by creating excessive turbulence or obstruction. This finding underscored the importance of balancing wing walls’ guiding and obstructing effects to achieve optimal performance. For designers, it is critical to carefully select wing wall angles to prevent airflow disruption while enhancing ventilation efficiency, especially in areas with variable wind patterns.

3.5. Hybrid Systems in Windcatcher Design

The combination of windcatchers with other passive and active systems, often called hybrid systems, has emerged as a critical strategy to improve the performance of natural ventilation systems. The studies reviewed highlighted how hybrid systems enhance windcatcher designs’ efficiency, thermal comfort, and sustainability, especially in challenging climates.

Seidabadi et al. (2019) [62] demonstrated the benefits of integrating windcatchers with other systems, such as Phase Change Materials (PCM), solar chimneys, and evaporative cooling. The study showed that combining windcatchers with these systems can significantly improve their overall performance by balancing natural ventilation with mechanical assistance (see Figure 25). These hybrid systems are particularly effective in environments where natural ventilation alone might be insufficient to meet comfort requirements. The research emphasized that hybrid systems are gaining attention for their ability to provide a more reliable solution for cooling and ventilation while maintaining energy efficiency. These systems can optimize airflow and cooling in diverse conditions by utilizing natural and mechanical components.

Liu et al. (2011) [30] extended this concept by integrating windcatchers with other passive systems, such as earth tubes or heat pumps, as demonstrated in Figure 26. Their findings showed that these combinations improve energy efficiency and ensure thermal comfort, particularly in higher temperature conditions where natural ventilation alone may not be enough. The addition of passive systems like earth tubes, which use the earth’s stable temperature to precondition air, reduces the cooling load and increases the effectiveness of windcatchers. Heat pumps complement windcatchers by providing mechanical cooling when necessary, thus creating a more energy-efficient system that can adapt to varying temperatures. This integration demonstrates the potential of hybrid systems in achieving both energy savings and indoor comfort in hot climates.

Ghoulem et al. (2020) [17] focused on applying hybrid systems in greenhouses, where integrating windcatchers with evaporative cooling systems can significantly enhance both natural ventilation and cooling. The study provided valuable insights into optimizing nozzle configurations and spray parameters to maximize the efficiency of evaporative cooling while minimizing energy consumption and water use (see Figure 27). By combining windcatchers with evaporative cooling, greenhouses in hot climates can maintain a cooler and more stable environment, which is critical for plant health. The hybrid system ensures that the cooling process is effective and resource-efficient, demonstrating the viability of such systems in agricultural applications.

Calautit et al. (2017) [9] presented the integration of heat transfer devices (HHTDs) with windcatchers as another method of improving cooling performance (see Figure 28). In this study, the use of HHTDs significantly enhanced the cooling capacity of windcatchers, making them a viable solution for passive cooling in hot climates. The research showed that integrating HHTDs enables the system to provide better IAQ and thermal comfort. However, the study noted that external factors such as wind speed and environmental conditions influence the system’s efficiency. This finding suggests that hybrid systems can significantly improve windcatcher performance, but their success may depend on local climatic variables.

Calautit et al. (2019) [10] extended the application of hybrid systems by demonstrating how integrating passive heat recovery with windcatchers can make natural ventilation viable year-round, even in colder climates (see Figure 29). By preheating incoming air, the heat recovery system reduces the demand for space heating, making windcatchers suitable for regions that experience colder winters. This integration significantly improves the sustainability of natural ventilation systems by allowing them to function effectively in both hot and cold seasons. The study highlighted that passive heat recovery enhances energy efficiency and increases the overall practicality of windcatchers in diverse climatic conditions, further extending their potential applications.

4. Discussion

This research explored the potential of traditional windcatchers as sustainable cooling solutions in hot, arid climates. Optimized windcatchers, integrated with modern technologies, enhance natural ventilation, reduce energy consumption, and improve thermal comfort [57]. Key design elements, such as configuration, louver design, wing walls, and hybrid systems, significantly influence airflow efficiency and IAQ [31,33]. Combining passive and active technologies like solar chimneys and incorporating hybrid systems demonstrates windcatchers’ adaptability to various climates [20,21]. Overall, the findings underscored the importance of design innovation and technological integration in maximizing the performance of windcatchers in energy-efficient building designs [32,63,64].

4.1. Significance of Traditional Windcatchers

The studies consistently showed that windcatchers offer a viable and sustainable cooling solution in hot, arid climates, particularly when integrated thoughtfully into modern architecture. Their ability to enhance natural ventilation, reduce energy consumption, and improve thermal comfort makes them valuable to residential and public buildings [1,2]. However, challenges such as occupant control, extreme climate conditions, and urban environmental factors can limit their performance [4,10]. To address these limitations, design optimization and hybrid approaches combining windcatchers with other passive systems are necessary [11,12]. The findings suggest that with appropriate design considerations and technological integration, windcatchers can play a significant role in future energy-efficient and climate-resilient buildings [13].

4.2. Windcatcher Configuration

The revised studies demonstrated that optimizing windcatcher configurations can significantly improve their airflow efficiency, thermal comfort, and energy savings performance. Geometric modifications such as funnel design and duct configurations and advanced technologies like CFD and fuzzy logic offer promising enhancements for traditional windcatchers [1,2]. These modifications can improve airflow patterns, reduce energy consumption, and enhance IAQ [3,4].

Moreover, the integration of windcatchers into modern urban environments and their adaptation to climate change and health challenges underscore their continued relevance as a sustainable, passive ventilation solution [9,11]. The ability of windcatchers to provide natural ventilation while minimizing reliance on mechanical systems aligns with contemporary goals for energy efficiency and sustainability in building design [12,13]. However, further research is needed to optimize specific design elements, such as vortex formation and pressure dynamics, to maximize their potential in diverse settings [15].

4.3. Windcatchers Louvers

The studies reviewed demonstrated that the configuration and design of windcatcher louvers substantially impact the performance of natural ventilation systems. Optimizing louver configurations, as suggested by [1], can improve airflow distribution and enhance the overall effectiveness of the windcatcher, particularly in high wind conditions. Meanwhile, [59] introduced airfoil-shaped louvers as a significant innovation, demonstrating their ability to increase airflow efficiency, reduce energy consumption, and improve IAQ [2].

These findings suggest that thoughtful louver design is essential for maximizing the performance of windcatcher systems, particularly in modern buildings seeking to balance energy efficiency and IAQ [3]. Future windcatcher designs should consider incorporating advanced louver configurations, including airflow regulators and airfoil shapes, to optimize performance across various environmental conditions [4].

4.4. Integration of Wing Walls into Windcatcher Designs

The integration of wing walls into windcatcher designs has significantly improved ventilation performance, especially in low wind speed environments and dense urban settings. Optimizing the length and angle of wing walls, as demonstrated in several studies, can enhance airflow efficiency, improve IAQ, and maintain thermal comfort without mechanical ventilation [1,2]. Modifications such as upward wing walls and more extended top roofs improve the system’s performance, making windcatchers a viable passive cooling solution that meets modern ventilation standards [3,4]. These findings underscore the importance of tailoring windcatcher designs to the specific environmental conditions and architectural contexts in which they are used [9,11].

4.5. Hybrid Systems

The examined studies collectively demonstrated that hybrid systems combining windcatchers with various passive and active technologies can significantly enhance natural ventilation performance. Windcatchers can provide better thermal comfort, energy efficiency, and IAQ by integrating solar chimneys, evaporative cooling, heat pumps, earth tubes, and heat recovery devices [1,2]. These hybrid systems allow windcatchers to adapt to a broader range of environmental conditions, making them more versatile and reliable, particularly in regions with extreme temperatures or fluctuating climates [3,4]. Overall, hybrid systems present a promising direction for the evolution of windcatcher technology, providing sustainable and energy-efficient solutions for modern buildings [9,11].

Additionally, the development of a longitudinal hybrid windcatcher for basement ventilation in warm, humid climates showed promising results in improving thermal comfort and air quality [65]. These studies underscore the necessity for further experimental data to validate the efficacy of hybrid systems in real-world applications, as highlighted by the call for more large-scale experimental works on solar chimney technology and hybrid systems [66]. The integration of advanced technologies such as CFD modeling and AI in windcatcher design presents significant opportunities for optimization. CFD modeling allows for detailed simulations of airflow and thermal performance, as demonstrated by [21], who validated CFD results against experimental data, enhancing design reliability [21,49].

AI, particularly artificial neural networks (ANN), can facilitate rapid performance predictions, making windcatcher design more accessible to non-experts [20]. This capability is crucial for adapting designs to varying environmental conditions. Furthermore, studies indicate that hybrid systems combining windcatchers with solar chimneys can improve indoor air quality and thermal comfort, underscoring the potential for innovative applications [56,57].

4.6. Limitations and Challenges

Windcatchers face several key limitations and challenges that impact their effectiveness in various environments. First, their reliance on wind availability renders them less effective in low-wind conditions, necessitating hybrid solutions to enhance functionality in calm climates [21,67]. Additionally, air quality issues arise in polluted, as windcatchers may compromise indoor air quality (IAQ) unless integrated filtration systems are included [68,69].

Moreover, the integration of windcatchers into modern urban environments is often restricted due to dense layouts and aesthetic considerations, which can limit their application [57]. Maintenance requirements also pose a challenge, as advanced configurations and hybrid systems increase complexity and costs [70]. Lastly, extreme weather adaptation is crucial, as windcatchers alone may not suffice for cooling demands in extreme climates, highlighting the need for supplemental technologies [9].

5. Conclusions

This review highlighted the advancements in windcatcher technology, focusing on hybrid systems, wing wall integration, and optimized louver configurations, all contributing to enhancing natural ventilation performance. The most significant finding was the growing potential of windcatcher hybrid systems, which combine traditional passive cooling with modern technologies such as evaporative cooling, solar chimneys, heat transfer devices, and heat recovery systems. These hybrid systems increase energy efficiency and provide improved IAQ and thermal comfort, even in challenging climates. Integrating advanced computational tools like CFD and fuzzy logic further refines windcatchers’ design and operational performance, setting a new benchmark in the field. The findings are significant for both modern architecture and sustainable building practices. They demonstrate that windcatchers can reduce energy consumption and improve thermal comfort in hot and mild-cold climates when coupled with new technologies. These advancements also suggest the potential for windcatchers to mitigate airborne pathogen transmission by maintaining proper air exchange rates, which is particularly important considering recent global health concerns.

However, the research is not without limitations. Windcatchers’ effectiveness remains sensitive to local environmental conditions, such as wind speed, wind direction, and urban configurations. While significant improvements have been made, further research is needed to optimize windcatcher performance in high-density urban environments and under extreme climate conditions. Additionally, more work is required to refine hybrid systems to balance natural ventilation with mechanical assistance while minimizing energy use and operational complexity.

In terms of policy, these findings suggest that urban planning regulations should promote the incorporation of windcatcher-based hybrid systems in both residential and public buildings, especially in regions with hot or variable climates. Policy changes encouraging the integration of passive cooling systems can lead to substantial energy savings and improved public health by reducing reliance on air-conditioning systems.

Future research should prioritize optimizing hybrid windcatcher systems by balancing natural ventilation and mechanical assistance, especially during low wind or extreme weather conditions. Design strategies should focus on improving airflow capture and integration in dense urban contexts where surrounding structures limit efficiency. Investigating the long-term economic and environmental impacts of large-scale windcatcher adoption is also critical, with emphasis on life-cycle costs, energy savings, and contributions to carbon reduction.

Standardizing windcatcher designs across diverse climates and building types is essential to enhance their adaptability and scalability. This includes identifying baseline design parameters for optimal performance in varying architectural and climatic conditions. Focused research questions, such as evaluating intelligent control systems for hybrid windcatchers or the impact of aerodynamic louvers on airflow efficiency and pollutant mitigation, would guide meaningful advancements.

These efforts will enable architects, engineers, and policymakers to maximize windcatchers’ potential in sustainable building and urban planning.