1. Introduction
Approximately 15 million tons of sugar beet are harvested annually in the European Community, about 50% of global production. The main product of more than ninety existing sugar factories is crystalline sucrose, but during this process, two by-products are also created: sugar beet pulp (SBP) and molasses. Molasses, containing around 50% sucrose, is the desired raw material in biotechnological processes, obtaining ethanol, fodder production, and baking. One ton of sugar beet processing leads to receiving about 500 kg of wet sugar beet pulp (100–125 kg of dry matter), 150–170 kg of sucrose, and 38–41 kg of molasses [
1,
2].
Sliced thin wedges of sugar beet root, after sucrose extraction with hot water, are called sugar beet pulp. It is typically compressed or dehydrated for use in animal nutrition. The yearly production of SBP in Europe reaches around 7–8 million tons of pressed and about 2–3 million tons of dried product [
2].
In the strict world of economic demands, sugar factories are seeking various methods of molasses and SBP valorisation. In this task, biotechnologists offer valuable support in facilitating the conversion of lignocellulose-containing sugar beet pulp into bioethanol. Despite the continuous development of alternatives to carbon-containing fuels for transportation, bioethanol remains one of the most demanded forms of energy used in cars and planes [
3,
4,
5].
Beet pulp can be transformed into ethanol for fuel purposes after combining physicochemical and enzymatic hydrolysis, followed by biochemical transformations in yeast cells starting from mono-sugar assimilation towards ethanol and carbon dioxide formation. SBP primarily comprises polysaccharides, including cellulose (20–30%), hemicelluloses (20–30%), lignins (1–2%), and pectins (35–60%), which together are up to 85% of the dry matter [
6,
7]. Before ethanolic fermentation, biopolymers from pulp must be degraded into fermentable mono-sugars. To enable easier accessibility of enzymes to the cellulose chains, the raw material is usually subjected to physicochemical pretreatment, leading to the disruption of lignin and the crystalline structure of the raw material matrix. Cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins can be broken down into monosaccharides through the action of cellulases, hemicellulases, and pectinases or by acids, primarily sulfuric, nitric, or hydrochloric. Glucose, galactose, and mannose released from lignocellulosic raw materials are pretty easily fermented to ethanol by most distiller strains of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Still, pentoses can be fermented to ethanol by fewer strains, e.g.,
Scheffersomyces stipitis [
8,
9,
10,
11,
12,
13]. Combined fermentations carried out by the yeasts
S. cerevisiae and
Scheffersomyces stipitis are often used in bioconversion processes of lignocellulosic feedstocks to ethanol. These strains are used simultaneously or added to media containing a mixture of hexoses and pentoses sequentially to convert the available sugars to ethanol as efficiently and rapidly as possible [
14,
15,
16,
17]. While acid treatment at high temperatures is the most economical method of lignocellulose hydrolysis, it faces limitations due to stricter environmental regulations. As a result, newer techniques are being developed to reduce chemical usage and incorporate their circulation within the process, which comes with challenges.
In contrast, enzymatic methods are widely considered eco-friendly; however, the financial feasibility of utilising enzymes has been questioned. As a result, significant attention has been directed towards the microbial saccharification of raw materials, which involves the on-site production of lignocellulose-degrading enzymes by selected microorganisms. Microbiological hydrolysis appears to be the golden mean between economical yet non-ecological physicochemical and efficient but costly enzymatic hydrolysis methods. Microbiological hydrolysis, known for centuries (e.g., in koji production) [
18], is gaining new applications in recent years concerning the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials. As microorganisms for this method, mould strains capable of extracellularly secreting a wide range of enzymes, including cellulases, are most commonly used [
19,
20,
21,
22]. This results in the liberation of monosaccharides from the polysaccharide substrate. The chief disadvantage of employing this treatment is the reduction in polysaccharides for the proliferation of cellulose-producing organisms. Nevertheless, utilising cost-efficient raw materials renders it a promising technique for the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials [
4,
9,
11,
23].
The purpose of our study was to assess the efficiency of producing ethanol from SBP by utilising different approaches to pretreatment, enzyme, and microbial hydrolysis assisted by the Trichoderma viride strain, along with fermentation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Scheffersomyces stipitis yeast.
2. Materials and Methods
Raw sugar beet pulp in thin strips (approx. 2 × 2 × 30 ÷ 60 mm) was obtained from the Dobrzelin Sugar Factory (Dobrzelin, Poland) and stored at −20 °C until used.
Cellulose content was determined according to the Kürschner-Hoffer [
24], hemicellulose according to Araschimovich and Ermakov [
25], and lignin content according to the method recommended by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) [
26]. The sugar beet pulp was analysed using methods recommended for the sugar industry [
27]. The dry matter content (DM) was measured using a Radwag (Radom, Poland) WPS-30S weighing dryer. Reducing sugars and total sugars (after mild hydrolysis at 72 °C with HCl) were determined according to the standard Miller method [
28] and expressed in g of inverted sugar per kg of SBP dry matter. The sucrose content in sugar beet pulp was determined by subtracting the amounts of total and reducing sugars, using a conversion factor of 0.95.
To increase the yield of sugar released, the thermo-chemical pretreatment (PRE) was performed according to three methods:
“AA” (Acid Autoclaved)—3 dm3 of 2% of sulfuric acid was mixed with 2 kg of SBP and autoclaved at 121 °C for 60 min;
“AB” (Acid Boiled)—3 dm3 of 2% sulfuric acid was mixed with 2 kg of SBP and boiled at 100 °C for 60 min;
“WB” (Water Boiled)—3 dm3 of water was mixed with 2 kg of SBP and boiled at 100 °C for 60 min.
After the pretreatment, the mixtures were cooled down, and the pH was adjusted to 5.3–5.5 using 30% NaOH.
Enzymatic hydrolysis (E) was performed in two options: “Eh” with the use of enzymatic preparation Cellic CTec2 and “Mh” with post-cultivation effluent of Trichoderma viride LOCK 0588 in SBP medium obtained as described below. In both methods (Eh and Mh), the final cellulase dose was 5 FPU/g of cellulose, and the process was carried out for 48 h at 50 °C.
To initiate the microbial production of cellulase with the use of
Trichoderma viride LOCK 0588 for Mh hydrolysis, a similar procedure to that described by Zakkpa et al. [
22] was performed, but using the dried SBP instead of corncobs. Potato dextrose agar (PDA) with chloramphenicol (500 mg cm
−3) to suppress bacterial growth was used as an activating/storage medium. The inoculated slants were incubated for 6 days at 25 °C. The SBP medium was prepared and consisted of the following per litre: (NH
4)
2SO
4 1.4 g, CaCl
2 0.3 g, KH
2PO
4 2.04 g, urea 2.1 g, MgSO
4·7H
2O 0.3 g, citric acid 0.25 g, Tween 80 2 cm
3, peptone 1 g, beet pulp powder 10 g, and trace mineral stock solution 1 cm
3. The trace mineral stock was prepared by mixing 500 cm
3 with MnSO
4·H
2O 0.93 g, FeSO
4 2.55 g, Co(NO
3)
2·6H
2O 1.25 g, ZnSO
4·H
2O 1.78 g, and concentrated HCl 5 cm
3. The beet pulp was oven-dried at 120 °C for 24 h and then ground and sieved (0.2–0.5 mm) to obtain the powder. A total of 100 cm
3 of SBP medium was transferred to each of the 12 Erlenmeyer flasks (total capacity 250 cm
3 each).
T. viride inoculum was prepared by flooding potato dextrose agar (PDA) slants with 10 cm
3 sterile distilled water. Conidia were scratched with an inoculation loop, and the tubes were shaken vigorously to obtain a homogeneous suspension. The spores were counted using a haemocytometer. Approximately 1 ÷ 1.2 × 10
7 spores of each isolate were inoculated into a conical flask containing 100 cm
3 of autoclaved SBP under laminar flow of sterile air. The inoculated flasks were incubated on a shaker at 150 rpm at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C) for 14 days. The liquid phase of the post-cultivation medium was then filtered using a 0.45 um bacteriological filter and then concentrated in a rotary vacuum evaporator (45 ± 1 °C; 110–130 mbar; 20 rpm) to 10% of its original volume, and such a concentrated solution (stored at −20 °C before hydrolysis) was used as a cellulase source in our experiments.
Before fermentation, hydrolysates were enriched with nitrogen and magnesium compounds. Nitrogen was supplemented by diammonium hydrogen phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 (0.3 g dm−3). Magnesium was added as MgSO4·7H2O at 0.05 g dm−3 of medium. The pH was then adjusted (pH = 5.2 ± 0.1)
Fermentation (at 32 ± 1 °C for 96 h) was carried out in 2 dm3 flasks (without agitation) containing 1 dm3 of the medium using 2 variants: 1) using only the preparation of Ethanol Red (ER) dry distillery yeast (S. cerevisiae) (Fermentis Division S.I. Lesaffre, France) at a dose of 0.5 g DM dm−3 of hydrolysate; 2) using a mixed culture of Ethanol Red yeast (0.3 g DM dm−3 of hydrolysate) and Scheffersomyces stipitis (SS) LOCK 0047 (LOCK 105, Lodz University of Technology, Poland) (1 g DM dm−3 of hydrolysate) applied simultaneously at the beginning of the fermentation.
The concentrations of glucose (GLU), galactose (GAL), fructose (FRU), xylose (XYL), rhamnose (RHA), arabinose (ARA), sucrose (SAC), raffinose (RAF), cellobiose (CEL), and ethanol in the media were analysed using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with an Agilent 1260 Infinity system (Agillent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and a Hi-Plex Ca column (7.7 × 300 mm, 8 μm) (Agilent Technologies, USA) equipped with a refractive index detector (RID) operating at 55∘C. The column temperature was maintained at 80 °C. HPLC-grade water served as the mobile phase, flowing at a rate of 0.6 mL/min, and a sample volume of 20 μL was used. Prior to analysis, samples were mixed with zinc sulfate solution to achieve a final concentration of 10% for protein precipitation. Sediments were removed through centrifugation at 7000 rpm for 10 min, and before analysis, samples were filtered using 0.45 μm Teflon membranes.
The ethanol gain was quantified as the absolute ethanol amount obtained from 100 kg of wet SBP. The fermentation yield (Fy) was calculated for the assayed fermentable sugars and expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield according to the following formula: Fy = (Ec × 100%)/(Fs × 0.51), where Ec is the ethanol concentration in the fermented medium [g/L]; Fs is the sum of assayed fermentable sugars; and 0.51 is the constant representing the theoretical yield of ethanol from glucose and xylose.
All assays were carried out in triplicate. Statistical analysis (variance analysis, SD determination, Student’s t-test at significance level a = 0.05) was carried out using the Origin 7.5 computer program.