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Review

Review on Lithium-Ion Battery Heat Dissipation Based on Microchannel–PCM Coupling Technology

by
Jun Chen
1,
Wanli Xu
1,
Hao Tian
1,
Yichao Cao
2,3,
Jincheng Gu
4,
Haijun Zhou
1 and
Yong Jin
1,*
1
School of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering, School of Energy, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China
2
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of High Performance Fiber Composites, Changzhou 213135, China
3
JITRI-PGTEX Joint Innovation Center, Changzhou 213135, China
4
Valiant Co., Ltd., Yantai 264006, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(3), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030631
Submission received: 30 December 2024 / Revised: 25 January 2025 / Accepted: 26 January 2025 / Published: 29 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Section D: Energy Storage and Application)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Lithium-ion battery heat dissipation difficulties seriously affect the efficient and stable operation of electronic devices and electric vehicles. Faced with the increasing heat dissipation demand, traditional liquid cooling systems cannot ensure the quality of heat dissipation and are seriously limited in the ability to provide uniform temperature adjustments. Combining microchannels with PCMs is beneficial. For the hybrid system here described, the maximum and average values of the temperature field were 10.35 K and 1 K, respectively, surpassing those of a liquid cooling system. By introducing suitable PCMs, the maximum value could be reduced by 5.6 K (under a 2C discharge rate) and by 16.2 K (under a 3C discharge rate). This article briefly introduces the development status and main problems of the technology combining microchannels and PCMs in BTMSs, then reviews the research progress for lithium-ion battery heat dissipation achieved by using the technology coupling microchannels and PCMs, analyzes its performance advantages, and finally prospects the future development direction of the microchannel–PCM coupling technology.

1. Introduction

Lithium-ion batteries, benefiting from their excellent energy content, long lifespan, good charge retention capability, and convenience, have become the mainstream core power source for modern electronic devices and power machinery. Battery performance, safety, and lifespan depend on the operating temperature, and batteries must run within a safe and reliable temperature range [1,2]. Lithium-ion batteries perform best at 15–35 °C [3]. When temperature does not reach 15 °C, the battery capacity decreases, and internal resistance increases; when it exceeds 35 °C, it may trigger irreversible reactions and go out of control [4,5,6].
While the performance requirements or integration of electronic devices and power machinery continue to increase, the need of total heat dissipation and the difficulty of heat dissipation for lithium-ion batteries have significantly increased. This has raised the demand for lithium-ion cooling systems. Firstly, there is a requirement for heat dissipation efficiency. During the operation of lithium-ion batteries, high current causes great heat. If temperature cannot be lowered in time and effectively, it may cause battery overheating, performance degradation, and even safety issues, particularly, in high-energy density systems such as electric vehicles and high-end energy storage devices. Secondly, there is a requirement for uniform heat dissipation. During the operation of lithium-ion batteries, due to uneven current distribution or heat dissipation, a significant temperature gradient can easily occur. This temperature gradient can accelerate the aging of electrode materials and shorten the battery life.
Air-cooled batteries, the most traditional ones, have been widely used commercially due to their simplicity in implementation, compact and flexible design, and high safety and reliability [7]. However, when considering the variable and closely packed structure of lithium-ion batteries, air cooling finds it difficult to remove the generated heat with sufficient flow, and the complex and curved air flow channels introduce excessive noise and vibration, ultimately affecting the performance of the battery [8]. Liquid cooling performs better than air cooling in BTMSs [9] but it is limited by the high probability of leakage, complex structure, and increased weight of the battery pack [10].

2. Pure Microchannel Technology

To solve the leakage problem of liquid cooling, scholars have proposed indirect liquid cooling methods. The most commonly used is a flat metal plate containing internal microchannels, namely, the microchannel liquid cooling plate [11]. This method utilizes a coolant circulating inside the metal channels to absorb and remove unfavorable heat [12]. Benefiting from the excellent heat conduction efficiency and low flow resistance, the microchannel technology dissipates heat better than traditional methods. These systems are also widely used for their compact structure and good extensibility.
Linear microchannels (see Figure 1a) are one of the most traditional types of microchannels, with an easy structure and a low pressure drop. However, on account of the short heat and cold fluid exchange time, poor heat dissipation performance, and large along-the-way losses, the uniformity of heat dissipation is also not good. Serpentine channels (see Figure 1b) are arranged in S-shaped bends, which, while significantly increasing the length of the heat exchange pipes per unit volume, also disrupt the thermal boundary layer through fluid disturbance, thereby achieving better heat exchange effects. As shown by the comparative experiments of Imran et al. [13], the bottom plate temperature of labyrinthine serpentine microchannels is lower than that of straight channels under all mass flow rates. However, the serpentine arrangement will inevitably bring about greater flow resistance and along-the-way pressure drop, leading to significant defects in the control of temperature uniformity. Therefore, traditional liquid cooling systems have insufficient heat conduction efficiency, inefficient cooling channel design, and a large system pressure drop. So, they are unable to achieve a uniform temperature and efficient heat dissipation in BTMSs.
Some scholars optimized and improved the heat dissipation performance by adjusting the channels. For example, Zhen et al. [14] studied several systems with different numbers of straight microchannels and their heat dissipation process (see Figure 2), finding that more channels can enhance the heat dissipation efficiency, but the improvement becomes smaller when the number of channels exceeds a certain value. Similarly, Deng et al. [15] also found that appropriately more serpentine channels can optimize thermolysis. To address the temperature uniformity issues of traditional serpentine structures, Zhang et al. [16] designed symmetric serpentine structures, while Fan et al. [17] designed single-direction secondary channels and grooves. These designs are aimed at creating lower pressure drops, ensuring uniform flow rates throughout the cooling process leading to consistent cooling effects, and ultimately achieving superior performance beyond that of traditional serpentine structures.
Further, the traditional single-inlet and single-outlet flow mode has many drawbacks and has gradually evolved into a multi-inlet and multi-outlet mode. Sheng et al. [18] designed a serpentine structure with dual outlets to balance the temperature field of lithium batteries. Based on the multi-outlet serpentine structure, multi-channel U-shaped structures have also been developed. For example, Patil et al. [19] used multiple U-type micro-channels cold plates with high cooling channel coverage and a large hydraulic diameter (see Figure 3), which effectively lowered the maximum temperature during high-load operation through a new flow mode and improved the uniformity of temperature distribution. However, increasing the number of inlet channels means needing more drive equipment, which leads to a higher overall power expenditure.
Notably, to further improve temperature uniformity, fractal, topological optimization, and biomimetic strategies have been applied to the design of micro-channel structures. For example, Monika et al. [20] used three-dimensional numerical methods to compare six different types of micro-channels (serpentine, U-shaped, straight, pumpkin-shaped, spiral, and hexagonal), and Amalesh et al. [21] disclosed seven types of multi-channels (rectangular groove, square wave, low wave, sine wave, arc, circular groove, and sawtooth) and their effects on battery cooling performance. These studies provide new ideas and directions for the design of micro-channel structures. Fan et al. [22] designed a double-layered dendriform structure and found that when the length ratio was 7:10 and the volume ratio was 6%, the peak value of the temperature was decreased by 1.79%, and its surface temperature irregularities were decreased by 69.25%, achieving the best heat dissipation performance. He et al. [23] described a double-layered I-shaped structure, where the higher channel transfers heat, while the lower channel recovers the coolant, significantly improving heat dissipation efficiency. Meanwhile, Liu et al. [24] proposed a biomimetic leaf vein branching channel, which not only alleviated the rise in battery temperature but also reduced system energy consumption, demonstrating its efficiency in cooling batteries.
More importantly, several studies have analyzed in detail the trade-off between enhanced cooling and increased pressure drop in microchannel design. For example, Naqvi et al. [25] mentioned balancing cooling efficiency and pressure loss by optimizing the design and using statistical analysis to determine the optimal design to achieve this balance, as shown in Figure 4. Moreover, Yang and Cao [26] pointed out the existence of a design optimization area (DOA), where the secondary channel can diminish the pressure loss and overall thermal resistance (see Figure 5). However, considerations on the trade-off between enhancing cooling in microchannel design and increasing pressure drop are numerous, with no common evaluation standard, and it is difficult to obtain numerical relationships; therefore, this area still requires further in-depth research.

3. Pure Phase-Change Materials

Phase-change materials (PCMs) in a special state can sustain a certain temperature regardless of heat intake/outtake, which makes them frequently applicable in fields such as energy storage, electronic devices, and BTMSs. Al-Hallaj and Selman [27] first applied PCMs to BTMSs (battery thermal management systems), and through simulations, the performance differences between PCMs, air cooling, or liquid cooling were compared. The results showed that PCMs provide significant advantages in improving the overall energy efficiency of battery systems, especially in response to temperature changes, as shown in Figure 6.
The PCM cooling technology involves wrapping the battery in PCMs, absorbing or releasing heat energy when phase transition appears, and regulating the temperature at an ideal level [29]. According to the type of phase transition, PCMs are roughly classified into solid–solid phase-change materials (SSPCMs), solid–gas phase-change materials (SGPCMs), solid–liquid phase-change materials (SLPCMs), liquid–gas phase-change materials (LGPCMs), and so on. Due to the small volume changes in SLPCMs, the phase transition process being easy to control, and the raw materials being easy to obtain, BTMSs generally use solid–liquid phase-change materials [30,31,32]. Sharma et al. [33] further subdivided SLPCMs into three types: organic, inorganic, and eutectic, the characteristics of them are shown in Table 1. Typical inorganic SLPCMs include water, aqueous solutions, salt hydrates, and molten salts. Organic SLPCMs include paraffins, alkanes, organic acids, and alcohol.
However, some PCMs may show insufficient thermodynamic performance, for instance, overcooling and poor thermal transfer performance and chemical stability [37]. Besides metal-based PCMs, other PCMs often have poorer thermal transfer performance characteristics. Organic PCMs have the lowest heat conductivity, while most non-metallic inorganic PCMs have a thermal conductivity only slightly higher than that of organic PCMs [38]. Basically, all selected PCMs have poor heat conductivity, which makes thermal transfer difficult, especially for high-power and frequent charging and discharging situations [39]. Ling et al. [28] analyzed the thermal conductivities of two different composite PCMs and their influence on thermal dissipation performance at low temperatures. They compared the temperature and potential changes between 20 battery cells operating at 5 °C and −10 °C and simulated battery operation in an electric vehicle. The study found that the RT44HC/silica composite material with lower heat conductivity led to greater temperature differences within the battery pack, causing uneven voltage distribution and thus prematurely ending the charge–discharge process. In contrast, high-thermal-conductivity 60 wt% RT44HC/expanded graphite (EG) composite material PCMs effectively reduced the temperature differences between batteries, thereby reducing the potential differences and ensuring overall voltage distribution uniformity. The research results emphasized the key role of high-thermal-conductivity PCMs in achieving a uniform temperature field, which is essential to improving the battery pack behavior in low-temperature conditions. Therefore, improving heat conductivity is a major challenge in research on PCM performance.
Currently, fin setting, encapsulation, and high-heat-conductivity fillers are the main measures to this aim. Fins can help PCMs to achieve a larger heat transfer area. As shown in Figure 7, Weng et al. [40] analyzed the influence of fin shape on thermal conductivity using paraffin PCMs, finding that the maximum temperatures of triangular, rectangular, and circular fins were 35.9 °C, 35.4 °C, and 36.2 °C, respectively, i.e., lower than the temperature of 38.5 °C reached when only PCMs were used. The encapsulation technology improves thermal conductivity by embedding PCMs into a solid shell to form microcapsules or macromolecules, thus enhancing their thermal conductivity. Encapsulation not only protects the stability of PCMs during melting and solidification but also acts as a heat transfer interface to enhance their thermal conductivity efficiency [41]. For instance, the microencapsulation technology improves the cyclic stability of PCMs by limiting the phase change process to a micro distance [42]. Microcapsules can effectively prevent the direct contact between PCMs and the external environment, avoiding leakage and degradation, thereby extending their service life [43]. PCMs encapsulated in microcapsules can also present significantly improved heat transfer efficiency due to their larger specific surface area [44]. However, encapsulation requires the selection of appropriate shell materials, core materials, and stabilizers to ensure that the microcapsules have good mechanical stability and thermodynamic properties [45]. This undoubtedly increases the difficulty of material selection while also significantly increasing the production costs. Moreover, the encapsulation process is relatively complex, and the difficulty of mass production is high. How to efficiently prepare high-quality phase-change microcapsules is a key research topic. Adding high-thermal-conductivity fillers (metal foam [46], expanded graphite [47], carbon nanotubes [48], graphene [49], boron nitride [50], etc.) in PCMs can construct continuous thermal conductivity paths, thereby significantly optimizing PCMs’ heat conductivity. Lafdi et al. [51] found that high-porosity and large-pore aluminum foam promotes convective heat transfer, while low-porosity aluminum foam enhances heat conduction. Hussain et al. [52] used a nickel–PA foam composite material as a cooling medium based on Lafdi’s research and conducted a comparative analysis of composite PA, natural air, and pure PA. The research results indicated that under a 2C discharge rate, the surface temperature was significantly reduced by about 31% and 24%, respectively, compared to the temperature achieved when using traditional approaches, and the composite material was able to diminish the temperature and improve the thermal management efficiency. Chan et al. [53] pointed out that coating a metal foam with graphene can increase heat conductivity from 3.69 to 19.85 W/(m⋅K), a 4.4-fold improvement. Based on this, a nickel foam–paraffin composite material with a graphene coating was developed.
Furthermore, PCMs’ heat conductivity can also be enhanced by adding high-heat-conductivity fillers and through nanotechnology optimization, porous structure design, and mixing with high-thermal-conductivity metals. For example, Shahid et al. [54] used nanoparticles to enhance water, increasing its heat conductivity by 0.32 W/(m·K). Kumar et al. [55] found that when nano-Si3N4 particles in a weight percentage of 2% were mixed with paraffin PCM, a 33.9% increase in the heat conductivity of the composite material was achieved. Hamza et al. [56] enhanced PCMs through different metal nanoparticles and found that nanoparticle addition increased the melting rate and enhanced the effective thermal conductivity. Pereira et al. [57] said that the addition of improved materials such as nanomaterials and foam skeletons and the improvement of the thermal conductivity of nanoparticles can enhance the heat transfer efficiency by 100%. Wang and Leong [58] confirmed that the implementation of the PCM/copper foam method will further diminish batteries’ extreme temperatures.
Most notably, Ren et al. [59] discussed specific cooling strategies for batteries under different discharge rates and found that for discharge rates below 2C, PCMs can comply with heat dissipation standards, while for discharge rates above 2C, additional active cooling is needed. Therefore, the heat dissipation effect of pure PCMs is not ideal and needs to be combined with that of other active heat dissipation methods. For instance, under a 3C discharge rate, the highest temperature of a pure PCM-cooled battery pack reaches 54.8 °C; if it is coupled with copper fins, the highest temperature can drop to 44.8 °C at 900 mL/min [60]. Under a 5C discharge rate, PCMs combined with a microchannel cooling structure can also stabilize the temperature at a lower level and achieve better temperature uniformity compared to pure PCMs [61].

4. Microchannel–PCM Coupling Technology

PCMs’ phase-change latent heat characteristics naturally include a good uniform temperature control performance [62], which exactly compensates for the shortcomings of large pressure drop and poor temperature uniformity of microchannel heat sinks. However, most researchers pointed out that the thermal conductivity of PCMs is poor [27,63,64], and PCMs may easily leak after melting, which makes it necessary to use rigid PCMs with a stable shape, but this will lead to poor contact between the battery and PCMs [65]. Microchannels, on the other hand, have high anti-leakage properties and stability. Therefore, microchannels and PCMs can be coupled and complement each other well, and the microchannel–PCM coupling technology is important for BTMSs. Li et al. [66] found that the advantage of the microchannel–PCM coupling technology is that the PCM may undergo a phase transition at ambient temperature during discharge. Liu et al. [67] confirmed that coupling optimization improves the cooling performance and applicability of the traditional system, while the temperature difference and highest temperature in the optimized system can be adjusted to 4.30 °C and 46.78 °C, respectively, under the conditions of 40 °C and 5C discharge rate.
Additionally, the coupling of PCMs can further improve the cooling effect of microchannel systems. As Mousavi et al. [68] encapsulated PCMs into the microchannels of BTMS liquid cooling plates, experiments showed that the highest temperature and average temperature difference of the hybrid system were 10.35K and 1K superior to that of a pure water system, respectively. Zhang et al. [69] described a new liquid cooling method coupled with PCMs and microchannels and found that, compared to liquid cooling, Tmax and ΔTmax were reduced by 17.5% and 19.5%, respectively. Rabiei et al. [61] carried out a numerical simulation of a hybrid cooling system with coupled PCMs and demonstrated that the highest temperature was effectively diminished under different environmental conditions and inlet velocities. Kshetrimayum et al. [70] adjusted the battery temperature to less than 363 K by coupling PCMs with microchannel cooling plates, effectively preventing the occurrence of thermal runaway. Similarly, Mousavi et al. [71] also found that under 2C and 3C discharge rates, the highest temperature was reduced by 5.6 K and 16.2 K, respectively, compared to that of the system without PCM plates.
Moreover, PCMs can be coupled with various types of microchannel structures, which is a highly universal procedure. For example, Yang et al. [72] presented a hybrid system combining Z-channels and composite phase-change materials, and by using different cooling plate designs, the optimized hybrid design could achieve a total pump power reduction of over 50% compared to that of the baseline cooling plate at different discharge rates (see Figure 8), while achieving the same cooling effect. Wang et al. [73] increased the thickness-to-height ratio of PCMs and successfully enhanced the heat storage capacity of a hybrid structure that combined PCMs and wavy microchannels. In a cross-flow configuration, the maximum temperature and the availability of PCMs are higher than in a unidirectional flow configuration. Yao et al. [74] simulated the combination of spider-web-shaped channels and PCMs and found that the hybrid cooling structure could more effectively adjust the highest temperature at high discharge rates than traditional PCMs. In addition, it is also possible to achieve better heat dissipation in PCMs by modulating the helical structure [75,76] and the honeycomb-like structure of the combined channels [77].
Significantly, despite BTMSs based on microchannel-PCMs coupling technology having many advantages, there are still some challenges in practical applications. For example, the manufacturing cost of the coupled system is high, making it difficult to achieve large-scale commercial applications. Current research is mainly focused on short-term performance optimization, while research on long-term stability and material degradation is relatively lacking. Especially in multiple charge–discharge cycles, the working efficiency of PCMs may decrease, and the flow resistance of the coolant in the microchannels may increase over time, leading to the gradual degradation of the system performance. Although multitudinous numerical simulation works have verified the effectiveness of the microchannel–PCM coupling technology, actual experimental verification is relatively scarce, especially in regard to experimental data under complex working conditions and long-term operation.

5. Conclusions

Lithium-ion battery heat dissipation problems affect the efficient and stable operation of high-end electronic devices and power machinery. The existing microchannel heat dissipation systems have a significant pressure drop in the flow direction, and their performance in achieving a uniform temperature also needs further optimization. Although the optimization of multi-channels can improve their performance, it also involves higher energy consumption. The cooling effect of pure PCMs is poor, and they are not suitable for high discharge rate conditions. The poor heat conductivity and leakage issues of PCMs still need further in-depth research. Currently, the coupling of the two systems can provide a good solution for the design of more efficient heat dissipation methods, ensuring temperature uniformity.
The microchannel–PCM coupling technology has allowed for significant heat dissipation effects in BTMSs, but some problems still exist, for example, the high manufacturing costs and the insufficient long-term stability verification, which need further investigation. Besides metal-based PCMs, other PCMs always have poor heat transfer characteristics. Among them, organic PCMs have the lowest heat conductivity, while most non-metallic inorganic PCMs have a thermal conductivity only slightly higher than that of organic PCMs. Future research should focus more on exploring new phase-change materials with better thermal conductivity, more suitable phase-change temperatures, and better chemical stability and should pay more attention to reducing the costs, saving energy, and obtaining lightweight systems to increase the overall efficiency. Moreover, the stability of the lithium-ion battery cooling systems is also very important. At present, the short-term stability of the combined system has been verified by some simulation and short-term experimental studies, but its long-term stability needs further experimental data support. Targeted experimental tests should also be designed to study the overall stability, reliability, and maintainability of heat dissipation systems under conditions such as multiple phase changes and long-term flow of the coolant.
Moreover, incorporating machine learning technology into BTMS optimization is another key future development. This trend will not only optimize the performance and dependability of cooling systems, but also drive the overall efficiency and sustainability of electronic devices and power machinery.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.C. and Y.J.; investigation, W.X. and H.T.; resources, Y.C., J.G. and H.Z.; writing—original draft, J.C., W.X., H.T., Y.C. and J.G.; writing—review and editing, J.C., W.X., H.T., H.Z. and Y.J.; supervision, Y.J.; funding acquisition, J.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by a scientific research start-up fee in the second half of 2022, grant number ZMF23020050.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Jincheng Gu was employed by the company Valiant Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
BTMSsBattery thermal management systems
PCMsPhase-change materials
SSPCMsSolid–solid phase-change materials
SGPCMsSolid–gas phase-change materials
SLPCMsSolid–liquid phase-change materials
LGPCMsLiquid–gas phase-change materials
PWPhase transition wax
DOADesign optimization area

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Figure 1. Traditional microchannel types. (a) Straight channels, (b) serpentine channels.
Figure 1. Traditional microchannel types. (a) Straight channels, (b) serpentine channels.
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Figure 2. Heat dissipation by different systems with linear microchannels [14].
Figure 2. Heat dissipation by different systems with linear microchannels [14].
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Figure 3. Multi-channel U-shaped microchannel liquid cooling plates [19].
Figure 3. Multi-channel U-shaped microchannel liquid cooling plates [19].
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Figure 4. Temperature and pressure conditions at different Reynolds numbers [25]. (a) outlet temperature; (b) pressure drop.
Figure 4. Temperature and pressure conditions at different Reynolds numbers [25]. (a) outlet temperature; (b) pressure drop.
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Figure 5. Thermal resistance changes correspond to different pressure losses [26]. Noted, the gray area indicates DOA, each circle represents the best one under each structural parameter.
Figure 5. Thermal resistance changes correspond to different pressure losses [26]. Noted, the gray area indicates DOA, each circle represents the best one under each structural parameter.
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Figure 6. Effect of PCMs on heat dissipation in lithium-ion batteries. (a) Tmax; (b) ΔTmax [28].
Figure 6. Effect of PCMs on heat dissipation in lithium-ion batteries. (a) Tmax; (b) ΔTmax [28].
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Figure 7. Comparison of fins with different shapes [40]. (a) triangular fin; (b) rectangular fin; (c) circular fin.
Figure 7. Comparison of fins with different shapes [40]. (a) triangular fin; (b) rectangular fin; (c) circular fin.
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Figure 8. The thermo-hydraulic performance at different battery discharge rates [72]. (a) 1C; (b) 2C; (c) 3C.
Figure 8. The thermo-hydraulic performance at different battery discharge rates [72]. (a) 1C; (b) 2C; (c) 3C.
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Table 1. Characteristics of different PCMs [34,35,36].
Table 1. Characteristics of different PCMs [34,35,36].
TypesAdvantagesDisadvantages
OrganicHigh melting enthalpy
Long-term thermal and chemical stability
Compatibility with most building materials		Incompatibility with some container materials, e.g., plastic
Flammability
Low thermal conductivity
(about 0.2 W/(m⋅K))
InorganicHigh storage density
High thermal conductivity
Low cost
Compatibility with plastic containers
Non-flammability		Corrosion
Significant volume expansion
Phase segregation
EutecticAppropriate and adjustable transition temperature
High enthalpy of fusion
Congruence of phase change		High cost
Limited thermo-physical properties
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Chen, J.; Xu, W.; Tian, H.; Cao, Y.; Gu, J.; Zhou, H.; Jin, Y. Review on Lithium-Ion Battery Heat Dissipation Based on Microchannel–PCM Coupling Technology. Energies 2025, 18, 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030631

AMA Style

Chen J, Xu W, Tian H, Cao Y, Gu J, Zhou H, Jin Y. Review on Lithium-Ion Battery Heat Dissipation Based on Microchannel–PCM Coupling Technology. Energies. 2025; 18(3):631. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030631

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chen, Jun, Wanli Xu, Hao Tian, Yichao Cao, Jincheng Gu, Haijun Zhou, and Yong Jin. 2025. "Review on Lithium-Ion Battery Heat Dissipation Based on Microchannel–PCM Coupling Technology" Energies 18, no. 3: 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030631

APA Style

Chen, J., Xu, W., Tian, H., Cao, Y., Gu, J., Zhou, H., & Jin, Y. (2025). Review on Lithium-Ion Battery Heat Dissipation Based on Microchannel–PCM Coupling Technology. Energies, 18(3), 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030631

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