Energy and Environmental Implications of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data and Methodology
2.1. Electricity Generation in China
Years | Coal | NG | Oil | Biomass | Garbage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2010 | 36.2 [21] | 41.4 [22] | 37.0 [22] | 29.5 [23] | 17.0 [24] |
2015 | 37.3 [21] | 42.7 b | 38.1 b | 30.4 b | 17.5 b |
2020 | 39.9 a | 45.7 b | 40.8 b | 32.5 b | 18.8 b |
2.2. Energy Consumption Calculation
Production stages | Coal | NG | Oil |
---|---|---|---|
Extraction | 97.0 | 96.0 | 93.0 |
Refining | 97.0 | 94.0 | 89.4 |
Vehicle types | CGVs | HEVs | EVs | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Energies (unit) | Gasoline (L/100 km) | Electricity (kWh/100 km) | ||
Year | 2010 | 8.0 [15] | 5.6 [15] | 24.0 [15] |
2015 | 7.4 a | 5.1 c | 23.0 a | |
2020 | 6.8 a | 4.5 b | 22.0 a |
Transportation modes | Sea tanker | Rail | Pipeline: oil | Pipeline: NG | Water Way | Road 1 a | Road 2 a |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(kJ t−1 km−1) | |||||||
Energy intensity | 23 | 240 | 300 | 372 | 148 | 1,362 | 1,200 |
Proportion and distance (km) | |||||||
Coal | 50%/1,000 | 17%/650 | 100%/50 | 8%/310 | |||
NG | 100% (1,500) | ||||||
Oil | 50%/11,000 | 45%/950 | 80% (500) | 10%/250 | |||
Gasoline/Diesel | 25%/7,000 | 50%/900 | 15%/1,200 | 10%/50 |
Energies | Coal | NG | Diesel | Gasoline | Biomass/Garbage a |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
MJ/MJ | MJ/MJ | MJ/MJ | MJ/MJ | MJ/MJ | |
CVs | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.10 |
Energies | Electricity | Coal | NG | Oil | Biomass | Garbage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
kJ/kWh | kJ/kg | kJ/m3 | kJ/kg | kJ/kg | kJ/kg | |
CVs | 3,600 | 20,908 [5] | 38,931 [5] | 42,652 [5] | 15,054 [5] | 15,545 [28] |
2.3. Emission Calculation
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Energy Implications of HEVs and EVs
3.1.1. Per-Kilometer Energy Consumption
Fuels | Gaseous pollutants | Particles | Greenhouse gas [35] | Heavy metals | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SO2 | NOX | VOC | CO | NH3 | PM10 | PM2.5 | OC | EC | CO2 | N2O | CH4 | Pb | Hg | |
Coal (g/kg, mg/kg for heavy metals) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 7.27 a | 6.85 b | 0.15 [36] | 2.48 [37] | 0 | 1.68 d | 1.20 [6] | 0.48 d | 0.019 d | 2055 | 0.031 | 0.021 | 0.27 [38] | 0.76 [39] |
2015 | 5.74 a | 6.38 b | 0.15c | 2.48c | 0 | 1.01 e | 0.72 e | 0.29 e | 0.012 e | 2055 | 0.031 | 0.021 | 0.16 e | 0.46 e |
2020 | 5.17 a | 5.92 b | 0.15c | 2.48c | 0 | 0.67 e | 0.48 e | 0.19 e | 0.008 e | 2055 | 0.031 | 0.021 | 0.11 e | 0.31 e |
NG (g/m3) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.18[40] | 1.76 [40] | 0.18 [36] | 1.30 [37] | 0 | 0.24 [40] | 0.17 [40] | 0 | 0 | 2184 | 0.004 | 0.039 | 0 | 0 |
2015 | 0.14 f | 1.64 f | 0.18c | 1.30c | 0 | 0.14 e | 0.10 e | 0 | 0 | 2184 | 0.004 | 0.039 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 0.13 f | 1.52 f | 0.18c | 1.30c | 0 | 0.10 e | 0.07 e | 0 | 0 | 2184 | 0.004 | 0.039 | 0 | 0 |
Oil (g/kg, mg/kg for heavy metals) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 2.24 [40] | 9.62 [41] | 0.09 [40] | 0.78 [40] | 0 | 0.31 [40] | 0.31 [40] | 0.004 [42] | 0.03 [42] | 3161 | 0.013 | 0.085 | 0 | 0.06 [43] |
2015 | 1.77 f | 8.97 f | 0.09 c | 0.78 c | 0 | 0.19 e | 0.19 e | 0.002 e | 0.02 e | 3161 | 0.013 | 0.085 | 0 | 0.03 e |
2020 | 1.59 f | 8.32 f | 0.09 c | 0.78 c | 0 | 0.12 e | 0.12 e | 0.002 e | 0.01 e | 3161 | 0.013 | 0.085 | 0 | 0.02 e |
Biomass (g/kg) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.53 [44] | 1.29 [44] | 4.06 [45] | 2.48 [46] | 0.52 [46] | 3.27 g | 1.64 g | 0.66 g | 0.03 g | 1115 | 0.005 | 0.030 | 0 | 0 |
2015 | 0.42 f | 1.20 f | 4.06 c | 2.48 c | 0.52 c | 1.96 e | 0.98 e | 0.40 e | 0.02 e | 1115 | 0.005 | 0.030 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 0.38 f | 1.12 f | 4.06 c | 2.48 c | 0.52 c | 1.31 e | 0.65 e | 0.26 e | 0.01 e | 1115 | 0.005 | 0.030 | 0 | 0 |
Garbage (g/kg) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0 | 2.50 [47] | 0.74 [47] | 5.00 [47] | 0.21 [48] | 0.35 [46] | 0.15 [46] | ND | ND | 1152 | 0.005 | 0.031 | 0 | 0 |
2015 | 0 | 2.33 f | 0.74 c | 5.00 c | 0.21 c | 0.21 e | 0.09 e | ND | ND | 1152 | 0.005 | 0.031 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 0 | 2.16 f | 0.74 c | 5.00 c | 0.21 c | 0.14 e | 0.06 e | ND | ND | 1152 | 0.005 | 0.031 | 0 | 0 |
Fuels/vehicle types | Gaseous pollutants | Particles | Greenhouse gas | Heavy metals | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SO2 | NOX | VOC | CO | NH3 | PM10 | PM2.5 | OC | EC | CO2 | N2O | CH4 | Pb | Hg | |
Coal (g/kg) [50 ] | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.74 | 1.22 | 0.2 | 0.19 | 0 | 0.19 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.009 | 77 | 0.26 | 0.028 | 0 | 0 |
2015 | 0.58 | 1.14 | 0.2 | 0.19 | 0 | 0.12 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.006 | 77 | 0.26 | 0.028 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 0.52 | 1.06 | 0.2 | 0.19 | 0 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.004 | 77 | 0.26 | 0.028 | 0 | 0 |
NG (g/kg) [50 ] | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.66 | 0.92 | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0 | 0.013 | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.0006 | 470 | 0.19 | 0.032 | 0 | 0 |
2015 | 0.52 | 0.86 | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0 | 0.008 | 0.004 | 0.001 | 0.0004 | 470 | 0.19 | 0.032 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 0.47 | 0.80 | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0 | 0.005 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.0002 | 470 | 0.19 | 0.032 | 0 | 0 |
Oil (g/kg) [50 ] | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.96 | 2.05 | 7.0 | 0.48 | 0 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.013 | 0.004 | 270 | 0.43 | 0.976 | 0 | 0 |
2015 | 0.76 | 1.91 | 7.0 | 0.48 | 0 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.008 | 0.002 | 270 | 0.43 | 0.976 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 0.68 | 1.77 | 7.0 | 0.48 | 0 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.005 | 0.002 | 270 | 0.43 | 0.976 | 0 | 0 |
Biomass/Garbage (g/kg) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0 | 0.01 | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 4.9 | 0.02 | 0.002 | 0 | 0 |
2015 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0 | 0.01 | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 4.8 | 0.02 | 0.002 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0 | 0.01 | 0.005 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 4.5 | 0.01 | 0.002 | 0 | 0 |
Lithium-ion battery production of EFHEVs (g/km) (EFEVs = 31.8 × EFHEVs) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.003 | 0.0017 | 0.0001 | 0.004 | 0 | 0.0009 | 0.0004 | 0.0001 | 0.00004 | 0.9 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 |
2015 | 0.002 | 0.0016 | 0.0001 | 0.004 | 0 | 0.0005 | 0.0003 | 0.0001 | 0.00003 | 0.9 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 0.002 | 0.0015 | 0.0001 | 0.004 | 0 | 0.0004 | 0.0002 | 0.0001 | 0.00002 | 0.9 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0 | 0 |
CGVs (g/km, mg/km for heavy metals) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.008 | 0.11 | 0.19 | 1.96 | 0.01 | 0.021 | 0.012 | 0.001 | 0.0002 | 262 | 0.004 | 0.025 | 0.001 | 0 |
2015 | 0.008 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.60 | 0.01 | 0.020 | 0.011 | 0.001 | 0.0002 | 241 | 0.003 | 0.017 | 0.001 | 0 |
2020 | 0.007 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.55 | 0.01 | 0.018 | 0.010 | 0.0005 | 0.0002 | 221 | 0.003 | 0.017 | 0.001 | 0 |
HEVs (g/km, mg/km for heavy metals) | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.006 | 0.009 | 0.034 | 0.51 | 0.01 | 0.021 | 0.011 | 0.0005 | 0.0002 | 183 | 0.003 | 0 | 0.0004 | 0 |
2015 | 0.006 | 0.007 | 0.020 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.020 | 0.011 | 0.0005 | 0.0002 | 165 | 0.002 | 0 | 0.0004 | 0 |
2020 | 0.006 | 0.005 | 0.019 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.020 | 0.010 | 0.0005 | 0.0002 | 147 | 0.002 | 0 | 0.0004 | 0 |
3.1.2. Energy Consumptions Changes in 2015 and 2020
3.2. Emissions Implications of HEVs and EVs
3.2.1. Emission Factors
Vehicle types | Gaseous pollutants | Particles | Greenhouse gas | Heavy metals | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SO2 | NOX | VOC | CO | NH3 | PM10 | PM2.5 | OC | EC | CO2 | N2O | CH4 | Pb | Hg | |
CGVs | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.06 | 0.23 | 0.60 | 1.99 | 0.01 | 0.026 | 0.014 | 0.001 | 0.0004 | 278 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.0006 | 0 |
2015 | 0.05 | 0.20 | 0.52 | 0.63 | 0.01 | 0.022 | 0.012 | 0.001 | 0.0003 | 257 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.0005 | 0 |
2020 | 0.05 | 0.17 | 0.51 | 0.58 | 0.01 | 0.020 | 0.011 | 0.001 | 0.0002 | 237 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.0005 | 0 |
HEVs | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.32 | 0.53 | 0.01 | 0.025 | 0.013 | 0.001 | 0.0004 | 195 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.0005 | 0.0002 |
2015 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.28 | 0.17 | 0.01 | 0.022 | 0.012 | 0.001 | 0.0003 | 176 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.0005 | 0.0001 |
2020 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.25 | 0.17 | 0.01 | 0.021 | 0.011 | 0.001 | 0.0002 | 157 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.0005 | 0.0001 |
EVs-national average | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.91 | 0.86 | 0.04 | 0.52 | 0.0009 | 0.23 | 0.15 | 0.06 | 0.005 | 260 | 0.03 | 0.006 | 0.03 | 0.08 |
2015 | 0.68 | 0.76 | 0.04 | 0.50 | 0.0009 | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.003 | 245 | 0.03 | 0.005 | 0.02 | 0.05 |
2020 | 0.56 | 0.64 | 0.04 | 0.47 | 0.0008 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.002 | 225 | 0.02 | 0.005 | 0.01 | 0.03 |
EVs-BTH | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 1.10 | 1.04 | 0.04 | 0.57 | 0 | 0.27 | 0.18 | 0.07 | 0.006 | 306 | 0.03 | 0.007 | 0.04 | 0.10 |
2015 | 0.82 | 0.91 | 0.04 | 0.55 | 0 | 0.15 | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.003 | 288 | 0.03 | 0.006 | 0.02 | 0.06 |
2020 | 0.67 | 0.76 | 0.04 | 0.52 | 0 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.002 | 264 | 0.03 | 0.006 | 0.01 | 0.03 |
EVs-YRD | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 1.02 | 0.96 | 0.04 | 0.54 | 0 | 0.25 | 0.16 | 0.06 | 0.006 | 284 | 0.03 | 0.006 | 0.03 | 0.09 |
2015 | 0.76 | 0.84 | 0.04 | 0.52 | 0 | 0.14 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.003 | 268 | 0.03 | 0.006 | 0.02 | 0.05 |
2020 | 0.62 | 0.70 | 0.03 | 0.49 | 0 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.002 | 245 | 0.03 | 0.005 | 0.01 | 0.03 |
EVs-PRD | ||||||||||||||
2010 | 0.74 | 0.69 | 0.03 | 0.42 | 0 | 0.18 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.004 | 210 | 0.02 | 0.004 | 0.02 | 0.07 |
2015 | 0.55 | 0.60 | 0.03 | 0.40 | 0 | 0.10 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.002 | 198 | 0.02 | 0.004 | 0.01 | 0.04 |
2020 | 0.45 | 0.51 | 0.03 | 0.38 | 0 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.002 | 182 | 0.02 | 0.004 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
Sources | Huo et al. [14] | Silva et al. [54] | Stephan and Sullivan [12] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vehicles | CGVs | HEVs | EVs | PHEVs | CGVs | HEV | PHEV | ||
Countries | U.S. | U.S. | Europe | Japan | U.S. | ||||
NOX | 0.19 | 0.13 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.25 | 0.14 | - | - | - |
VOC | 0.18 | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.17 | 0.32 | 0.16 | - | - | - |
CO | 2.22 | 0.36 | 0.06 | 0.60 | 1.06 | 0.49 | - | - | - |
PM10 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.25 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
PM2.5 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.07 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
CO2 | - | - | - | 109 | 103 | 106 | 432 | 296 | 177 |
3.2.2. Emission Changes in 2015 and 2020
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
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Lang, J.; Cheng, S.; Zhou, Y.; Zhao, B.; Wang, H.; Zhang, S. Energy and Environmental Implications of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles in China. Energies 2013, 6, 2663-2685. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6052663
Lang J, Cheng S, Zhou Y, Zhao B, Wang H, Zhang S. Energy and Environmental Implications of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles in China. Energies. 2013; 6(5):2663-2685. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6052663
Chicago/Turabian StyleLang, Jianlei, Shuiyuan Cheng, Ying Zhou, Beibei Zhao, Haiyan Wang, and Shujing Zhang. 2013. "Energy and Environmental Implications of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles in China" Energies 6, no. 5: 2663-2685. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6052663