Life-Cycle Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Analysis for Bio-Liquid Jet Fuel from Open Pond-Based Micro-Algae under China Conditions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. China is Facing Rapidly Increasing Energy Demand and Oil Imports
1.2. Liquid Fuel Shortage in China Due to Transportation Increasing
1.3. China is Developing Alternative Fuels on a Large Scale
1.4. Life-Cycle Analysis is a Useful Tool for Policy Decision Making
1.5. Algae-Based Biofuel: Energy Positive or Not?
1.6. About This Study
2. Method and Data
2.1. Model Description
2.2. Life-Cycle Stages Covered and System Boundary
2.3. Reference Pathway
Item | Number | Unit |
---|---|---|
Life-cycle fossil energy consumption | 1.26 | MJ/MJ |
Including: Coal | 0.07 | MJ/MJ |
Natural gas | 0.06 | MJ/MJ |
Petroleum | 1.13 | MJ/MJ |
Life-cycle GHG emissions | 93.5 | g CO2, e/MJ |
2.4. Baseline Algal BJF Pathway
Item | Properties | Note |
---|---|---|
Type of algae cultivation system | Open raceway ponds | Selected because of its lower cost and energy consumption than the bioreactor system [26] |
Scale of algae farm and CO2 source | A nearby power plant | Based on primary bench-scale data and process modeling in Kadam (2002) [39] which considered a coal power plant with algae biomass using flue gas from the power plants. |
CO2 content of flue gas | 20 vol % | CAERC report [36] |
Algae productivity | 25 g/m2/day | Davis et al. (2011) [38] |
Lipid content | 25% | Davis et al. (2011) [38] |
Type of algae oil extraction system | Wet extraction | Extraction must be done onsite proximal to the algae growth pond [40] |
2.5. Energy and GHG Intensity of Process Fuels and Nutrients
Item | EFLC | By sort | GHGLC | Upstream emission | ||||
EFLC,Coal | EFLC,NG | EFLC,Petrol | CO2,up | CH4,up | N2Oup | |||
Units | MJ/MJ | g CO2,e/MJ | g/MJ | g/MJ | mg/MJ | |||
Coal | 1.172 | 1.061 | 0.001 | 0.110 | 104.5 | 5.733 | 0.425 | 0.172 |
Natural gas | 1.196 | 0.081 | 1.015 | 0.065 | 72.73 | 13.544 | 0.110 | 0.161 |
Diesel | 1.319 | 0.156 | 0.027 | 1.119 | 102.4 | 28.287 | 0.078 | 0.441 |
Gasoline | 1.331 | 0.164 | 0.049 | 1.130 | 98.86 | 30.506 | 0.086 | 0.472 |
Electricity | 2.924 | 2.572 | 0.021 | 0.330 | 289.6 | 273.308 | 1.010 | 3.917 |
Item | Unit | N | P | K | Steam (from coal) | H2 (from coal) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lifecycle fossil Energy | MJ/kg | 55.17 | 7.98 | 8.90 | 1.56 | 1.78 |
Of which, Coal | MJ/kg | 41.52 | 3.01 | 5.71 | 1.41 | 1.76 |
Natural gas | MJ/kg | 7.83 | 4.25 | 1.14 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Petroleum | MJ/kg | 5.55 | 0.58 | 2.01 | 0.15 | 0.02 |
Lifecycle GHG | g CO2,e/kg | 5148 | 587 | 811 | 139 | 163 |
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Detailed Analysis of All Stages
3.1.1. Algae Farming
3.1.2. Algae Harvesting
3.1.3. Oil Extraction
3.1.4. AD, Biogas Cleaning and CHP
3.2. Carbon Balance
3.3. Nutrients Balance
3.4. Non-CO2 GHG Emissions
3.5. Direct Energy Demand
Item | Unit | Direct energy demand | CO2 demand | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Process | Process input | Thermal (MJ) | Electrical (kWh) | Thermal (MJ) | Electrical (kWh) | per kg algae | per kg of algae lipid | |
Growth | – | per kg algae | per kg algae | per kg of algae lipid | per kg of algae lipid | 2.16 | 11.80 | |
water circulation | 2.00 | kW per ha | – | 0.096 | – | 0.53 | – | – |
water pumping | 3.90 | t per kg algae | – | 0.195 | – | 1.07 | – | – |
water replenishment | 0.60 | cm per day | – | 0.116 | – | 0.63 | – | – |
Off-site CO2 transport to onsite | – | – | – | 0.017 | – | 0.09 | 1.45 | 7.95 |
Off-site CO2 transfer into pond | – | – | – | 0.031 | – | 0.17 | 1.45 | 7.95 |
Recovered CO2 transfer into pond | – | – | – | 0.015 | – | 0.08 | 0.70 | 3.85 |
Harvest | 1.17 | kg algae/kg dewatered algae | – | per kg dewatered algae | – | per kg of algae lipid | – | – |
1.16 | 5.41 | |||||||
Lipid extraction | 4.68 | kg dewatered algae/kg lipids | per kg lipids | per kg lipids | per kg of algae lipid | per kg of algae lipid | – | – |
6.12 | 0.77 | 6.12 | 0.77 | |||||
Anaerobic digester | 4.47 | kg feed/kg lipids | per kg feed | per kg feed | per kg of algae lipid | per kg of algae lipid | – | – |
2.45 | 0.14 | 10.95 | 0.61 | |||||
Biogas cleanup | 0.297 | cubic meter/kg feed | – | per cubic meter | – | per kg of algae lipid | – | – |
0.25 | 0.33 | |||||||
Total direct demand on site | – | – | – | – | 17.07 | 9.69 | – | – |
Recovered on site (CHP) | 76% | CHP efficiency | per MJ CH4 | per MJ CH4 | per kg of algae lipid | per kg of algae lipid | – | – |
35.8 | MJ/cubic meter | 0.43 | 0.09 | 20.45 | 4.36 | |||
Imported externally | – | – | – | – | −3.38 | 5.33 | – | – |
3.6. Jet Fuel Production
3.7. Co-Products, Oil and Fuel Transportation
Product/Intermediate | Mode | Energy Intensity (MJ/t km, backhaul of the vehicle includes when appropriate) | Fuel mix (%) | Distance (km) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Digestate solids transported to fields | Medium heavy-duty truck | 1.36 | Diesel (100%) | 100 |
Algae oil transported to fuel production | Railway | 0.07 | Residue oil (100%) | 500 |
Fuel transported to terminal | Railway | 0.07 | Residue oil (100%) | 1000 |
Fuel distributed to airport | Heavy heavy-duty truck | 0.68 | Diesel (100%) | 50 |
3.8. Energy and GHG Emissions Results
3.8.1. Energy Returns on Investment for Algae Oil
3.8.2. Life-Cycle Results for Algae Oil-Based Jet Fuel
Item | Unit | per MJ BJF | per MJ CJF | Ratio of BJF to CJF |
---|---|---|---|---|
Life-cycle fossil Energy | MJ/MJ | 1.76 | 1.26 | 1.39 |
Of which, Coal | MJ/MJ | 1.48 | 0.07 | 20.07 |
Natural gas | MJ/MJ | 0.10 | 0.06 | 1.73 |
Petroleum | MJ/MJ | 0.18 | 1.13 | 0.16 |
Life-cycle GHG | gCO2,e/MJ | 159 | 93 | 1.70 |
3.9. Sensitivity Analysis
Parameter | Unit | Cases | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline case | Low case | High case | ||
Lipid content | wt% | 25 | 50 | 1.25 |
Fresh water energy use | – | China current situation | Not counted in | Similar to US situation in [34] |
CO2 acquire energy use | – | Flue gas (20 vol%) | Not counted in | As pure CO2: 140 kWh/t [54] |
Algae productivity | g/m2/day | 2.5 | 5 | 1.25 |
Energy use for algae harvest | kWh per kg algae | About 1.2 | About half that in base case | About 10 time that in base case |
Energy use for lipid extraction | per kg lipid | 6 MJ of heat and 0.5 kWh of electricity | 2 MJ of heat and 0.1 kWh of electricity | 12 MJ of heat and 1.0 kWh of electricity |
CH4 yield | L/g-TS | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 |
CHP electrical efficiency | % | 33 | 38 | 28 |
Fraction of N recovered to culture | % | 75 | 65 | 85 |
– | – | Baseline case | Alternative case | |
Water pumping to/from pond | kWh per kg algae | 195 (calculated by authors) | 1450(situation in [34]) | |
Recovered energy by CHP | – | Yes | No | |
Embodied energy in pond construction materials | – | No | Yes. Energy embodied in materials is about 30% that of biomass produced [34]. |
3.10. Better Scenario Discussion
- It is obvious that the overall GHG emissions of this pathway can be greatly improved if the electricity and heat generation can be sourced from low-carbon fuels. Some potential improvements in the life cycle of algae-based fuel pathway are also assumed to be achieved in this future case. For example, more renewable electricity and cleaner power will be available in the future to change the coal-dominant power system in China currently;
- Because energy consumption during algae harvesting has a significant impact on the final result, it is also assumed that great efforts will be made to decrease the energy-intensity of algae harvesting to half that of the current level. This parameter in the future case will be reduced to only 10% of the assumed value in the baseline scenario;
- In addition, biogas yield from the LEA flow into the digester can be increased and thereby improve the LCA results further. This parameter in the future case will be increased by 33% from the assumed level in the baseline scenario;
- Based on the fact that the contributions of the stirring, pumping, water replenishment, algae dewatering, and even algae oil extraction to the overall GHG emissions (per unit jet fuel product) depend on the lipid content of the algae. The lipid content is assumed be increased from 25% to 50%, to substantially reduce emissions for this pathway.
3.11. Comparative Study
Source | Location of the study | EROI (direct) for algae oil | EROI (Life-cycle) for algae oil | The ratio of lifecycle fossil energy use for algae-based jet fuel to CJF | The ratio of lifecycle GHG emissions for algae-based jet fuel to CJF |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
This study | China | base case: 2.0 | base case: 0.82 | base case: 1.36 with a range from 1.01 to 7.68; Better case: 0.39 | Base case: 1.66 with a range from 1.23 to 9.67; Better case: 0.50 |
Lardon et al. 2009 [24] | Mediterranean | – | – | 1.0 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) | 1.1 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) |
Clarens et al. 2010[25] | Virginia, Iowa, California in USA | – | – | 1.1 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) | 0.61 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) |
Jorquera et al. 2010 [56] | Unspecified location | – | – | 2.8 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) | – |
Sander and Murthy, 2010 [57] | U.S. nationwide data, Unspecified location | – | – | 0.2 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) | 0.50 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) |
Stephenson et al. 2010 [58] | United Kingdom | – | – | 0.3 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) | 0.64 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) |
Campbell et al. 2011 [26] | Coastal Australia | – | – | 1.05 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) | 0.56 (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) |
Liu et al. 2011 [59] | – | – | 1.6~4.0 (biodiesel) | – | – |
ANL [28] | USA | – | – | 0.45 (biodiesel to low sulfur diesel) | 0.55 (biodiesel to low sulfur diesel) |
Handler et al. 2012 [55] | Unspecified location | – | 0.1~2.3 | – | Three cases: 0.61,1.44, 5.38 |
Stratton et al. 2010 [32] | – | – | – | – | 0.6 with a range from 0.2 to 2.3 |
Vasudevan et al. (2012) [41] | – | – | – | (biodiesel to Petroleum diesel) wet extraction: about 0.5; Dry extraction: about 3.00. |
4. Concluding Remarks
- Algae strain selection is one of the key bottlenecks for high lipid content algae cultivation in an open and wide system. Moreover, some strains should be selected to maximize the final algae lipid productivity based on the trade-off between algae biomass productivity and lipid content;
- Innovative design and technology integration should be introduced into this new pathway to decrease energy use and costs as some traditional processes (e.g., centrifugation and drying) are very energy-intensive.
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Ou, X.; Yan, X.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, X. Life-Cycle Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Analysis for Bio-Liquid Jet Fuel from Open Pond-Based Micro-Algae under China Conditions. Energies 2013, 6, 4897-4923. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6094897
Ou X, Yan X, Zhang X, Zhang X. Life-Cycle Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Analysis for Bio-Liquid Jet Fuel from Open Pond-Based Micro-Algae under China Conditions. Energies. 2013; 6(9):4897-4923. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6094897
Chicago/Turabian StyleOu, Xunmin, Xiaoyu Yan, Xu Zhang, and Xiliang Zhang. 2013. "Life-Cycle Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Analysis for Bio-Liquid Jet Fuel from Open Pond-Based Micro-Algae under China Conditions" Energies 6, no. 9: 4897-4923. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6094897