Impacts of Low Atmospheric Pressure on Properties of Cement Concrete in Plateau Areas: A Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Influence of LAP on Bubble
2.1. Influence of LAP on Effects of AEA
2.2. Bubble Characteristics under LAP
2.2.1. Changes of the Bubbles under LAP
2.2.2. Influences of LAP on Bubble Characteristics
3. Influence of LAP on Properties of Cement Concrete
3.1. Influence of LAP on Workability of Cement Concrete
3.1.1. Slump of Concrete Mixture
3.1.2. Slump Flow of Concrete Mixture
3.1.3. Pumpability of Concrete Mixture
3.1.4. Workability of Concrete Mixture
3.2. Influence of LAP on Mechanical Properties of Concrete
3.2.1. Compressive Strength of Concrete
3.2.2. Flexural Strength of Concrete
3.3. Effect of LAP on Durability of Concrete
3.3.1. Frost Resistance of Concrete
3.3.2. Impermeability of Concrete
4. Improvement Techniques
4.1. Mechanism for Developing New AEA
4.2. Proper Adjustment of Preparation Process
4.3. Adoption of Reasonable Maintenance Methods
5. Conclusions and Suggestions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Areas | Air Entraining Agent Quantity (g) | Maximum Bubble Volume (mL) | Foam Duration (h) | Bubble Shape |
---|---|---|---|---|
Beijing | 0.2 | 11 | 27 | Small particle size, large quantity |
Golmud | 0.2 | 10 | 15.2 | Large particle size, small quantity |
Sample | AP (kPa) | Surface Tension | Foaming Ability | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Test Value (mN·m−1) | Growth Rate (%) | Foaming Capacity (mL) | Foaming Capacity at 3 min (mL) | Foam Stability (%) | Defoaming Time (h) | Bubble Shape | ||
AEA-A | 101.1 | 29.4 | 100 | Full | Full | 100 | ≥72 h | Small |
65.9 | 32.9 | 112 | Full | Full | 100 | ≥48 h | Much big | |
57.2 | 34.6 | 118 | 50 | 49 | 98 | ≥48 h | Little, sparse | |
AEA-B | 101.1 | 31.9 | 100 | 38 | 36 | 95 | ≥36 h | Moderate |
65.9 | 34.2 | 107 | 32 | 30 | 94 | ≥24 h | Much big | |
57.2 | 36.3 | 114 | 29 | 26 | 90 | ≥24 h | Little, sparse |
AEA | Initial Air Content (%) | AP (kPa) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
80 | 60 | 50 | ||||||||
1# | 2# | 3# | 1# | 2# | 3# | 1# | 2# | 3# | ||
Saponins | 3 | 0.94 | 0.94 | 0.88 | 0.84 | 0.82 | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.76 | 0.75 |
5 | 0.87 | 0.81 | 0.83 | 0.75 | 0.72 | 0.69 | 0.66 | 0.61 | 0.62 | |
7 | 0.86 | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.72 | 0.64 | 0.64 | 0.61 | 0.53 | 0.53 | |
JDU | 3 | 0.88 | 0.88 | 0.87 | 0.76 | 0.78 | 0.80 | 0.70 | 0.69 | 0.73 |
5 | 0.87 | 0.82 | 0.77 | 0.73 | 0.70 | 0.62 | 0.63 | 0.62 | 0.55 | |
7 | 0.83 | 0.82 | 0.76 | 0.71 | 0.65 | 0.60 | 0.60 | 0.56 | 0.51 | |
Rosin | 3 | 0.91 | 0.85 | 0.90 | 0.84 | 0.76 | 0.83 | 0.75 | 0.65 | 0.73 |
5 | 0.82 | 0.77 | 0.80 | 0.69 | 0.63 | 0.64 | 0.65 | 0.62 | 0.62 | |
7 | 0.74 | 0.79 | 0.75 | 0.66 | 0.64 | 0.59 | 0.62 | 0.61 | 0.55 | |
Polyether | 3 | 0.85 | 0.90 | 0.90 | 0.82 | 0.81 | 0.87 | 0.82 | 0.74 | 0.80 |
5 | 0.82 | 0.75 | 0.78 | 0.76 | 0.67 | 0.67 | 0.74 | 0.67 | 0.61 | |
7 | 0.74 | 0.77 | 0.71 | 0.69 | 0.70 | 0.64 | 0.67 | 0.68 | 0.61 |
Initial Air Content (%) | Air Entraining Agent Type | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Saponins | JDU | Rosin | Polyether | |
3 | 6-5 | 12-31 | 9-35 | 10-20 |
5 | 13-39 | 13-45 | 18-38 | 18-39 |
7 | 14-47 | 17-49 | 21-45 | 23-39 |
Researchers | Test | Results | Summary |
---|---|---|---|
Zhu, et al. [3] | Foaming test Property test | The AP affects the air entraining ability of AEA, which ultimately leads to a decrease in the air content of concrete under LAP. | From different researchers and tests, we know that the LAP significantly reduces the foaming capacity and foam stability of AEA. It can affect the air content of concrete, which is not conducive to the properties of concrete. |
Yan, et al. [32] | AEA quality test | ||
Li, et al. [4,5,8,33] | Simulation test of LAP Porosity test | LAP can significantly reduce the air entraining ability of AEA. No matter what kind of AEA is added, the air content of concrete decreases with the decrease of AP. When other conditions are constant, the air content of concrete decreases linearly with the decrease of AP. When initial air content of concretes is high, the reduction rate of air content increases with the decrease of AP. When the initial air content of concretes is similar, the greater the slump of concrete, the stronger its resistance to the decrease of air content caused by the decrease of AP. | |
Ke, et al. [9,10] | Pumpability test |
AEA | Rosin | JDU | Saponins | Polyether | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LAP | AP | LAP | AP | LAP | AP | LAP | AP | |
Air content of hardened concrete (%) | 2.5 | 4.6 | 2.54 | 4.87 | 3.03 | 4.92 | 2.95 | 4.92 |
Bubble spacing coefficient (μm) | 337 | 207 | 358 | 175 | 313 | 184 | 316 | 178 |
Specific surface area of stomata (mm−1) | 20.44 | 25.87 | 19.47 | 29.79 | 20.62 | 31.21 | 20.64 | 29.01 |
Average bubble diameter (μm) | 196 | 155 | 205 | 134 | 194 | 128 | 194 | 138 |
Number of bubbles per unit volume | 308 | 718 | 298 | 875 | 377 | 927 | 367 | 862 |
AEA | Rosin | JDU | Saponins | Polyether | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LAP | AP | LAP | AP | LAP | AP | LAP | AP | |
Air content of hardened concrete (%) | 3.86 | 3.62 | 4.47 | 4.46 | 3.87 | 3.9 | 3.81 | 3.72 |
Bubble spacing coefficient (μm) | 266 | 177 | 212 | 119 | 203 | 157 | 319 | 178 |
Specific surface area of stomata (mm−1) | 21.8 | 25.96 | 25.59 | 39.66 | 28.25 | 36.55 | 18.26 | 32.95 |
Average bubble diameter (μm) | 184 | 171 | 156 | 138 | 142 | 109 | 219 | 121 |
Number of bubbles per unit volume | 508 | 823 | 691 | 929 | 660 | 861 | 420 | 740 |
Curing Ages | Curing Condition | Porosity (%) | Total Mercury Intake (mL/g) | Average Pore Size (nm) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3d | P50H30 P75H30 | P50H60 P75H60 | 14.86 14.25 | 13.87 13.12 | 0.0838 0.0833 | 0.0748 0.0729 | 53.3 46.7 | 38.5 35.4 |
7d | P50H30 P75H30 | P50H60 P75H60 | 14.07 13.08 | 13.03 12.25 | 0.0805 0.079 | 0.0733 0.0711 | 38.7 35.2 | 34.1 31.6 |
28d | P100H98 | 12.79 | 12.79 | 0.0689 | 0.0689 | 20.5 | 20.5 |
Researchers | Mechanical Properties | Results | Summary |
---|---|---|---|
Ma [11] | Compressive strength | During the curing process, when humidity is constant, the compressive strength of concrete decreases with the decrease of AP. | From different researchers and tests, we know that the LAP affects the mechanical properties of concrete by the bubble characteristics (especially air content). |
Flexural strength | During the curing process, when the humidity is constant, the flexural strength of concrete decreases with the decrease of AP. | ||
Liu [2] | Compressive strength | Under normal AP, the compressive strength of concrete is related to the air content and pore structure. When the average pore size is small, the reduction rate of compressive strength is also small. On the contrary, the average pore size increases under LAP, which increases the reduction rate of compressive strength. | |
Flexural strength | Under AP, bubbles can reduce the internal microcracks formed by concrete during hardening. Flexural strength is more sensitive to these micro cracks than compressive strength. On the contrary, under LAP, the air content decreases. There are not enough bubbles to inhibit microcracks. Therefore, LAP greatly affects the flexural strength. | ||
Zhou, et al. [47] | Compressive strength | Under AP, when air content of concrete was less than 5%, the correlation between compressive strength and air content varied greatly at 3d and 7d curing ages. Therefore, under LAP, the air content decreases, which greatly affects compressive strength of concrete. |
AP (kPa) | AEA Dosage (%) | Air Content (%) | Frost Resistance at 28-Day Curing Ages | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relative Dynamic Elasticity Modulus (%) | Loss of Mass (%) | |||||||
P50 | P100 | P150 | W50 | W100 | W150 | |||
Tibet, 65.9 | 0.04 | 3.6 | 90 | 86 | 78 | 0.4 | 1.2 | 2.7 |
Hubei, 101.1 | 0.04 | 5.1 | 93 | 90 | 84 | 0 | 0.3 | 1.0 |
Researchers | Durability | Results | Summary |
---|---|---|---|
Li, et al. [7] | Frost resistance | When the AP decreases to 50 kPa, the air content of concrete decreases about 20%–49% in comparison to that in normal AP. It directly affects the frost resistance of the concrete. | From different researchers and tests, we know that the LAP affects the durability of concrete by the bubble characteristics (especially air content). |
Yan, et al. [32] | Frost resistance | After 150 freeze-thaw cycles, the concrete specimens in the Hubei area have higher relative elastic modulus and smaller mass loss. Its frost resistance is better than that of Tibet. | |
Liu [2], Wang, et al. [64], Gong, et al. [65], Liu, et al. [66], Dai, et al. [67] | Frost resistance | Under normal AP, proper air content can improve the frost resistance of concrete. However, LAP can significantly reduce air content, which greatly affects the frost resistance. | |
Ma [11] | Impermeability | The impermeability of concrete decreases with the decrease of AP when the humidity is constant during the curing ages. | |
Liu [2], Gong, et al. [65], Dai, et al. [67] | Impermeability | Under normal AP, proper air content can improve the impermeability of concrete. However, LAP can significantly reduce air content, which greatly affects the impermeability. |
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Huo, J.; Wang, Z.; Chen, H.; He, R. Impacts of Low Atmospheric Pressure on Properties of Cement Concrete in Plateau Areas: A Literature Review. Materials 2019, 12, 1384. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12091384
Huo J, Wang Z, Chen H, He R. Impacts of Low Atmospheric Pressure on Properties of Cement Concrete in Plateau Areas: A Literature Review. Materials. 2019; 12(9):1384. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12091384
Chicago/Turabian StyleHuo, Jinyang, Zhenjun Wang, Huaxin Chen, and Rui He. 2019. "Impacts of Low Atmospheric Pressure on Properties of Cement Concrete in Plateau Areas: A Literature Review" Materials 12, no. 9: 1384. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12091384